Anglo-Iraqi War
Anglo-Iraqi War | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Part of the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II | |||||||
British soldiers at Baghdad, 11 June 1941 | |||||||
| |||||||
Belligerents | |||||||
Australia[nb 1] New Zealand[nb 2] Greece[nb 3] | |||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Salah al-Sabbagh Kamil Shabib Fahmi Said Mahmud Salman Fawzi al-Qawuqji Amin al-Husseini[12] Werner Junck | |||||||
Strength | |||||||
1 infantry division[13] 2 brigade groups[nb 5] 100+ aircraft[nb 6] |
4 divisions[16] 30,000 troops[17] 116 Iraqi aircraft[18] (50–60 serviceable)[10] 21–29 German aircraft[4][19] 12 Italian aircraft[5] | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
Casualties slight[20] At least 200 killed[21] 28 aircraft[22] |
500 killed[20] Most of the serviceable Iraqi aircraft[23] 19 German aircraft[5] 3 Italian aircraft[5] |
The Anglo-Iraqi War was a British-led
Following a series of skirmishes, Allied airstrikes were launched against Iraq on 2 May. The campaign resulted in the collapse of al-Gaylani's short-lived government, and re-installed Abd al-Ilah as the Regent. This increased the influence of the Allies in the Middle Eastern theatre.
Background
Mandatory Iraq
The
After 1937, no British troops were left in Iraq and the government had become solely responsible for internal security.
In September 1939, the Iraqi Government broke off diplomatic relations with
Coup d'état
On 31 March, the
The Golden Square intended to refuse further concessions to Britain, retain diplomatic links with
Iraqi forces
Before the war, the United Kingdom provided support to the
The air force had 116 aircraft in seven squadrons, of which 50 to 60 were serviceable, and a training school.
The
British force
On 1 April 1941, the British forces in Iraq were small. Air Vice Marshal Harry Smart commanded British Forces in Iraq, a multi-service headquarters. Ground forces included
At RAF Habbaniya,
British response
The British perspective was that relations with Rashid Ali's "National Defence Government" had become increasingly unsatisfactory. Under the terms of the 1931 treaty, Iraq was bound to provide assistance to the United Kingdom during times of war, these obligations included permitting the passage of British troops through its territory. There was a British Military Mission with the Royal Iraqi Army, and the RAF had stations at Habbaniya and at Shaibah.[53] From the outset, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill refused recognition of Rashid Ali's "National Defence Government", labeling it illegal.[54]
On 2 April 1941, Sir
On 6 April, AVM Smart requested reinforcements, but his request was rejected by the
The British
Operation Sabine
On 8 April, Winston Churchill contacted Leo Amery, Secretary of State for India, and asked him what force could be quickly sent from India to Iraq. Amery contacted General Auchinleck and Lord Linlithgow, Viceroy and Governor-General of India, the same day.[59] The response from India was that most of a brigade group due to set sail for Malaya on 10 April, could be diverted to Basra and the rest sent ten days later; 390 British infantry could be flown from India into RAF Shaibah, and when shipping was available the force could quickly be built up to a division.[10] On 10 April this offer was accepted by London, and the move of these forces was codenamed.[57] On the same day General Archibald Wavell, Commander-in-Chief of Middle East Command, informed London that he could no longer spare the battalion in Palestine and urged diplomacy and possibly a demonstration of air strength, rather than military intervention.[10]
On 10 April, Major-General
On 12 April,
On 13 April, the Royal Navy force of four ships in the Persian Gulf was reinforced by the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes and two light cruisers, HMS Emerald and HMNZS Leander. HMS Hermes carried the Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers of 814 Squadron.[62] The naval vessels which covered the disembarkation at Basra consisted of the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes, the light cruiser HMS Emerald, the light cruiser HMNZS Leander, the sloop HMS Falmouth, the gunboat HMS Cockchafer, the sloop HMS Seabelle, the minesweeper sloop HMIS Lawrence, and the sloop HMAS Yarra. On the morning of 15 April, Convoy BP7 was met at sea by HMS Seabelle from Basra. Later in the day the escort was reinforced by HMS Falmouth. On 17 April, the convoy was joined by HMIS Lawrence and then proceeded towards the entrance of the Shatt al-Arab. On 18 April, the convoy moved up the Shatt al-Arab and arrived at Basra at 0930 hrs. HMS Emerald was already in Basra.[1] On the same day, HMNZS Leander was released from support duties in the Persian Gulf. On 16 April, the Iraqi Government was informed that the British were going to invoke the Anglo-Iraq treaty to move troops through the country to Palestine. Rashid Ali raised no objection.
First arrivals in Basra
On 17 April, the 1st Battalion King's Own Royal Regiment (1st KORR) was flown into RAF Shaibah from Karachi in India.[34] Colonel Ouvry Roberts, the Chief Staff Officer of the 10th Indian Infantry Division, arrived with the 1st KORR.[64][65] By 18 April, the airlift of the 1st KORR to Shaibah was completed. The troop-carrying aircraft used for this airlift were 7 Valentias and 4 Atalantas supplemented by 4 DC-2s which had recently arrived in India.[1]
On 18 April, the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade landed at Basra,
By 19 April, the disembarkation of the force transported by Convoy BP7 at Basra was completed.[1] On the same day, seven aircraft[nb 9] were flown into RAF Habbaniya to bolster the air force there.[14] Following the landing of the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade, Rashid Ali requested that the brigade be moved quickly through the country and that no more troops should arrive until the previous force had left.[67] Sir Kinahan Cornwallis, the British Ambassador to Iraq, referred the issue to London and London replied that they had no interest in moving the troops out of the country and wanted to establish them within Iraq. Cornwallis was also instructed not to inform Rashid Ali who, as he had taken control of the country via a coup d'état, had no right to be informed about British troop movements.[61]
On 20 April, Churchill had written to
Additional arrivals
On 29 April, having sailed from
Also on 29 April,[14] the British Ambassador, Sir Kinahan Cornwallis,[35] advised that all British women and children should leave Baghdad; 230 civilians were escorted by road to Habbaniya and during the following days, were gradually airlifted to Shaibah.[14] A further 350 civilians took refuge in the British Embassy and 150 British civilians in the American Legation.[70]
By the end of the month, Colonel Roberts and 300 of the 1st KORR had been flown from RAF Shaibah to reinforce RAF Habbaniya.[14] Other than the 1st KORR, there were no trained British troops at Habbaniya bar the Number 1 Armoured Car Company RAF.[51]
Iraqi moves and escalation to war
At 03:00 hours on 30 April, RAF Habbaniya was warned by the British Embassy that Iraqi forces had left their bases at Baghdad, and were heading west.[14] The Iraqi force was composed of between 6,000[71] and 9,000[72] troops with up to 30 artillery pieces.[71] A few hours after RAF Habbaniya was warned, Iraqi forces occupied the plateau to the south of the base. Reconnaissance aircraft were launched before dawn from RAF Habbaniya, and reported that at least two battalions, with artillery, had taken up position on the plateau.[nb 10]
By 1 May, the Iraqi forces surrounding Habbaniya had swelled to an infantry brigade, two mechanised battalions, a mechanised artillery brigade with 12 3.7-inch mountain howitzers, a field artillery brigade with 12 18-pounder field guns and four 4.5-inch howitzers, 12 Crossley six-wheeled armoured cars, a number of Fiat light tanks, a mechanised machine gun company, a mechanised signal company, and a mixed battery of anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns. This totalled 9,000 regular troops, an undetermined number of tribal irregulars, and about 50 field guns.[73]
Iraqi demands
At 06:00 hours on 30 April, an Iraqi envoy presented a message to Smart, stating that the plateau had been occupied for a training exercise.[74] The envoy also informed Smart that all flying should cease immediately[14] and demanded that no movements, either ground or air, take place from the base.[74] Smart replied that any interference with the normal training carried out at the base would be treated as an act of war.[14] Sir Kinahan Cornwallis, the British Ambassador located at the British Embassy in Baghdad and in contact with RAF Habbaniya via wireless, fully supported this action.[14]
British reconnaissance aircraft, already in the air, continued to relay information to the base; they reported that the Iraqi positions on the plateau were being steadily reinforced and that Iraqi troops had occupied the town of Fallujah.[14]
At 11:30 hours, the Iraqi envoy again made contact with Smart and accused the British of violating the Anglo-Iraqi treaty. Smart replied that this was a political matter and he would have to refer the accusation to Cornwallis.[14] Meanwhile, Iraqi forces had now occupied vital bridges over the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and reinforced their garrison at Ramadi, cutting off land links to RAF Habbaniya.[11]
Situation at RAF Habbaniya
During the morning, Smart and Roberts surveyed the situation, they determined that they were exposed to attack on two sides and dominated by Iraqi artillery; a single hit from an Iraqi gun might destroy the water tower or power station and, as a result, cripple resistance at Habbaniya in one blow – the base seemed at the mercy of the Iraqi rebels. The garrison did not have enough small arms, and the only artillery support was few mortars.[75]
Smart controlled a base with a population of around 9,000 civilians[61] that was indefensible with the force of roughly 2,500 men currently available.[76] The 2,500 men included air crew and Assyrian Levies, who were prized by the British for their loyalty, discipline and fighting qualities.[77] There was also the possibility that the Iraqi rebels were waiting for dark before attacking. Air Vice-Marshal Smart decided to accept the tactical risks and stick to Middle East Command's policy of avoiding aggravation in Iraq by, for the moment, not launching a pre-emptive strike.[7]
Further exchanges
Further exchanges of messages took place between the British and Iraqi forces, but did not defuse the situation. Air Vice-Marshal Smart again requested reinforcements, and this time Air Officer Commanding
Decision to launch air strikes made
Also on 1 May, Ambassador Cornwallis received a response giving him full authority to take any steps needed to ensure the withdrawal of the Iraqi armed forces.[11] Churchill also sent a personal reply, stating: "If you have to strike, strike hard. Use all necessary force."[74] In the event that contact broke down between the British Embassy in Baghdad and the air base in Habbaniya, Air Vice-Marshal Smart was given permission to act on his own authority.[11]
Still in contact with the British Embassy and with the approval of Ambassador Cornwallis, Air Vice-Marshal Smart decided to launch air strikes against the plateau the following morning without issuing an ultimatum, as with foreknowledge the Iraqi force might start to shell the airbase and halt any attempt to launch aircraft.[11]
Campaign
2 May
Most combat operations of the Anglo-Iraqi War centred on the Habbaniya area. Starting early on 2 May, British airstrikes were launched against the Iraqis from RAF Habbaniya.[11] While the largest number of British troops were ultimately assembled in the Basra area, an advance from Basra was not immediately practicable and did not get under way until after Rashid Ali's government was already collapsing. Initially, the Iraqi siege of RAF Habbaniya and the ability of the besieged British force there to withstand the siege was the primary focus of the conflict. Air Vice-Marshal Smart's decision to strike at the Iraqi positions with air power not only allowed his force to withstand the siege, but to neutralise much of Iraq's air power. While the relief force from Palestine arrived in Habbaniya after the siege was over, it did allow an immediate change over to the offensive.
Siege of Habbaniya
Air Vice-Marshal Smart's tactics to defend Habbaniya was to mount continuous
By the end of the day, the Iraqi force outside Habbaniya had grown to roughly a brigade.[82]
Iraqi forces, 2 May
The British attack on 2 May took the Iraqis completely by surprise. While the Iraqis on the escarpment carried live ammunition, many Iraqi soldiers were under the impression that they were on a training exercise. Rashid Ali and the members of the Golden Square were shocked by the British defenders at RAF Habbaniya being prepared to fight rather than surrender. To compound the surprise and shock, many members of the
On 3 May, the British bombing of the Iraqis continued; troop and gun positions on the plateau were targeted as well as the supply line to Baghdad. The Iraqi air base at Rashid was also attacked[82] and an Iraqi Savoia SM 79 bomber heading for Habbaniya was intercepted and shot down.[81] The following day further air attacks were carried out on Iraqi troop positions and the Iraqi air force. A bombing raid conducted by eight Wellington bombers on Rashid was briefly engaged by Iraqi fighters, but no losses were suffered. Bristol Blenheims escorted by Hurricanes also conducted strafing attacks against airfields at Baghdad, Rashid and Mosul.[82]
On 5 May, due to a car accident, Air Vice-Marshal Smart was evacuated to Basra and then to India. Colonel Roberts assumed de facto command of the land operations at RAF Habbaniya after the departure of Smart.[84] Air Vice-Marshal John D'Albiac, from Greece, was to take command over aerial forces at Habbaniya[85] and of all RAF forces in Iraq. Further aerial attacks were conducted against the plateau during the day, and following nightfall[82] Colonel Roberts ordered a sortie by the King's Own Royal Regiment (1st KORR) against the Iraqi positions on the plateau. The attack was supported by the Assyrian levies, some RAF armoured cars and two First World War-era 4.5-inch howitzers which had been put in working order by some British gunners who had previously been decorating the entrance of the base's officers' mess.[64][86]
Iraqis abandon escarpment
Late on 6 May, the Iraqis besieging Habbaniya withdrew. By dawn on Wednesday 7 May, RAF armoured cars reconnoitred the top of the
The investment of Habbaniya, by Iraqi forces, had come to an end. The British garrison had suffered 13 men killed, 21 badly wounded, and four men suffering battle fatigue. The garrison had inflicted between 500 and 1000 casualties on the besieging force, and taken many prisoners. On 6 May alone, 408 Iraqi troops were captured.[87] The Chiefs-of-Staff now ordered that it was essential to continue to hit the Iraqi armed forces hard by every means available while avoiding direct attacks on the civilian population. The British objective was to safeguard British interests from Axis intervention in Iraq, to defeat the rebels, and to discredit Rashid's government.[9]
Iraqi reinforcements attacked
Meanwhile, Iraqi reinforcements were approaching Habbaniya. RAF armoured cars, reconnoitring ahead, soon found that the village of Sin el Dhibban, on the Fallujah road, was occupied by Iraqi troops. The 1st KORR and the Assyrian levies, supported by the RAF armoured cars, assaulted the position, driving the Iraqis out and taking over 300 prisoners. The Iraqi force retreating from Habbaniya met with an Iraqi column moving towards Habbaniya from Fallujah in the afternoon. The two Iraqi forces met around 5 miles (8.0 km) east of Habbaniya on the Fallujah road. The reinforcing Iraqi column was soon spotted and 40 aircraft from RAF Habbaniya arrived to attack; the two Iraqi columns were paralysed, and within two hours more than 1,000 Iraqi casualties were inflicted and further prisoners were taken.[64][82] Later in the afternoon Iraqi aircraft carried out three raids on the airbase and inflicted some damage.[82]
Churchill praises Smart
Also on 7 May, apparently unaware of Smart's injury, Churchill sent the following message to Smart:
Your vigorous and splendid action has largely restored the situation. We are all watching the grand fight you are making. All possible aid will be sent. Keep it up![88]
Over the course of the next few days the RAF, from Habbaniya and Shaibah, effectively eliminated the Iraqi air force. However, from 11 May, German Air Force (Luftwaffe) aircraft took the place of the Iraqi aircraft.[85][nb 12]
Axis intervention
During the time leading up to the coup d'état, Rashid Ali's supporters had been informed that Germany was willing to recognise the independence of Iraq from the British Empire. There had also been discussions on war material being sent to support the Iraqis and other Arab factions in fighting the British.[citation needed]
On 3 May, German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop persuaded German dictator Adolf Hitler to secretly return Dr. Fritz Grobba to Iraq to head up a diplomatic mission to channel support to the Rashid Ali regime. The British quickly learned of the German arrangements through intercepted Italian diplomatic transmissions.[89]
On 6 May, in accordance with the Paris Protocols, Germany concluded a deal with the Vichy French government to release war materials, including aircraft, from sealed stockpiles in Syria and transport them to the Iraqis. The French also agreed to allow passage of other weapons and material as well as loaning several airbases in northern Syria, to Germany, for the transport of German aircraft to Iraq.[91] Between 9 May and the end of the month, about one-hundred German and about twenty Italian aircraft landed on Syrian airfields.[92] Darlan had actually ensured that the Protocols included a proposal that the French would launch an offensive against the British-held Iraqi oilfields, and the oil would be made available to the Germans.[93]
Fliegerführer Irak
On 6 May, the Luftwaffe ordered Colonel Werner Junck to take a small force to Iraq, to operate out of Mosul. Between 10 and 15 May the aircraft arrived in Mosul via Vichy French airbases in Syria, and then commenced regular aerial attacks on British forces. The arrival of these aircraft was the direct result of fevered consultations between Baghdad and Berlin in the days following RAF strikes on the Iraqi forces above Habbaniya. The Luftwaffe force, under the direction of Lieutenant General Hans Jeschonnek, was named "Flyer Command Iraq" (Fliegerführer Irak)[nb 13] and was under the tactical command of Colonel Junck. On 11 May, the first three Luftwaffe planes arrived at Mosul via Syria. At least 20 bombers were initially promised; ultimately Junck's unit consisted of between 21 and 29 aircraft, all painted with Royal Iraqi Air Force markings.[4][19][89][nb 14]
Major Axel von Blomberg was sent to Iraq with Sonderstab F ("Special Staff F"), the German military mission commanded by General Hellmuth Felmy. He was to command a Brandenburgers Commando reconnaissance group in Iraq that was to precede Fliegerführer Irak.[95] He was also tasked with integrating Fliegerführer Irak with Iraqi forces in operations against the British.[89] On 15 May, he flew from Mosul to Baghdad. On its approach to Baghdad, the aircraft was engaged by Iraqi ground fire, and von Blomberg was killed.[96]
At this time Germany and the Soviet Union were still allies due to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939, and this was reflected in Soviet actions regarding Iraq. On 12 May, the Soviet Union recognised Rashid Ali's "National Defence Government."[97] An Iraqi-Soviet exchange of notes established diplomatic relations between the two governments.[98]
Vichy French supplies from Syria
On 13 May, the first trainload of supplies, from Syria, arrived in Mosul via Turkey. The Iraqis took delivery of 15,500 rifles, with six million rounds of ammunition, 200 machine guns with 900 belts of ammunition, and four 75 mm field guns with 10,000 shells. Two additional deliveries were made on 26 and 28 May, which included eight 155 mm guns with 6,000 shells, 354 machine pistols, 30,000 grenades, and 32 trucks.[99]
On 14 May, according to Winston Churchill, the RAF was authorised to act against German aircraft in Syria and on Vichy French airfields.[100] On the same day, two over-laden Heinkel 111 bombers were left in Palmyra in central Syria because they had damaged rear wheels. British fighters entered French air space and strafed and disabled the damaged Heinkels.[99] On 15 May an attack was made on German aircraft on the ground at Damascus, killing a French officer in the process.[101]
By 18 May, Junck's force had been whittled down to 8 Messerschmitt Bf 110 fighters, 4 Heinkel He 111 bombers, and 2 Junkers Ju 52 transports. This represented roughly a 30 per cent loss of his original force. With few replacements available, no spares, poor fuel, and aggressive attacks by the British, this rate of attrition did not bode well for Fliegerführer Irak. Indeed, near the end of May, Junck had lost 14 Messerschmitts and 5 Heinkels.[102] On 18 May four Vichy Morane 406s chased British aircraft flying above Syria, and another three Moranes attacked British Bristol Blenheims near Damascus without causing damage.[103] On 19 May another British aerial attack near Damascus damaged several French aircraft and wounded a French soldier, and on 20 May British aircraft intentionally shot up six French aircraft and fifty vehicles.[104]
More dogfights between Vichy and British aircraft took place on 24 May, as well as a British sabotage mission by 13
Britain was incensed that Vichy had assisted Italy and Germany in their attacks on the British in Iraq, which would not have been possible save for the connivance of the Vichy French.
Italy
On 27 May, after being invited by Germany, 12 Italian
Plans were drawn up to supply troops, but the German high command was hesitant and required the permission of Turkey for passage. In the end the Luftwaffe found conditions in Iraq intolerable, as spare parts were not available, and the quality of aircraft fuel was far below the Luftwaffe's requirements. With each passing day fewer aircraft remained serviceable, and ultimately all Luftwaffe personnel were evacuated on the last remaining Heinkel He 111.[citation needed]
Advance from Palestine
On 2 May, the day AVM Smart launched his airstrikes, Wavell continued to urge for further diplomatic action to be taken with the Iraqi government to end the current situation and accept the Turkish government's offer of mediation. He was informed by the Defence Committee that there would be no accepting the Turkish offer and that the situation in Iraq had to be restored.[citation needed]
Rutbah
Before Smart launched his airstrikes on 2 May, members of the Iraqi Desert Police had seized the fort at
By the end of the first day of airstrikes, there had been reports that elements of the Royal Iraqi Army were advancing on the town of Rutbah.
On 4 May, Churchill ordered Wavell to dispatch a force from Palestine.
On 8 May a column of the
The next day, the RAF continued to bomb the fort intermittently. One plane sustained such heavy small-arms fire that it crashed on the way home, killing the pilot. That evening, 40 trucks armed with machine guns arrived at the fort to reinforce the garrison. Half of the trucks were irregulars under the command of Fawzi al-Qawuqji and the other half were Iraqi Desert Police. Glubb decided to withdraw the troops back to H3 to await the reinforcement of the main column.[citation needed]
The Arab Legion returned to H3 on the morning of 10 May, and found No. 2 Armoured Car Company RAF under Squadron Leader Michael Casano waiting there. They had been sent up ahead of the main column to assist the Arab Legion in taking Rutbah. Casano took his RAF armoured cars to Rutbah whilst the Arab Legion replenished their supplies at H3. Casano's armoured cars fought an action against al-Qawuqji's trucks for most of the rest of the day and, although the result was not decisive, the trucks retired to the east under the cover of darkness, leaving the garrison to its fate. That night the RAF succeeded in a night bombing, with several bombs landing inside the fort.[citation needed]
Following the withdrawal of al-Qawuqji's trucks and the successful bombing by the RAF, the garrison withdrew from the fort under the cover of darkness. In the morning the Arab Legion column arrived and garrisoned the fort whilst Casano's armoured cars continued to fight remnants of the Iraqi Desert Police's forces.[119]
Habbaniya Force
The force put together in Palestine by Wavell was codenamed
After the TJFF refused to enter Iraq that Clark decided to divide Habforce into two columns.
Kingcol
During the morning of 11 May, Kingcol departed from Haifa[125] with orders to reach Habbaniya as quickly as possible.[113] The occasion was the last all-horse operation in British military history.[128] On 13 May, Kingcol arrived in Rutbah but found no military presence there: Glubb Pasha and the Arab Legion had already moved on. The flying column under Brigadier Kingstone then conducted maintenance at Rutbah before moving on themselves. On 15 May, the first contact was made with the Iraqi military when a Blenheim bomber strafed the column and dropped a bomb; no damage was inflicted and no casualties were sustained.[129][nb 15] On 16 May, further bombing attacks were made against the column when it was attacked by the Luftwaffe, again no damage was sustained, but there were a few casualties.[85][130]
Also on 15 May, Fraser went sick and was replaced as the commander of the 10th Indian Division.
Arrival at Habbaniya
During the late evening of 17 May, Kingcol reached the vicinity of Habbaniya. The next morning the column entered the RAF base[130][131] and throughout the day the remainder of the 1st battalion The Essex Regiment were airlifted into the base.[132] The force dispatched from Palestine to relieve the Iraqi siege of RAF Habbaniya arrived about 12 days after the siege was lifted.[109]
Battle of Fallujah
With Habbaniya secure, the next objective for British forces was to secure the town of Fallujah as a preliminary objective before being able to march on Baghdad.[85] An Iraqi brigade group was holding the town and bridge of Fallujah denying the road to Baghdad; a further Brigade group was holding the town of Ramadi, west of Habbaniya, barring all movement westwards.[133] Colonel Roberts dismissed the idea of attacking Ramadi because it was still garrisoned heavily by the Iraqi Army and was largely cut off by self-imposed flooding. Roberts left Ramadi isolated and instead secured the strategically important bridge over the Euphrates at Fallujah.[134]
In the week following the withdrawal of the Iraqi forces near Habbaniya, Colonel Roberts formed what became known as the Habbaniya Brigade, formed by grouping the 1st battalion The Essex Regiment from Kingcol with further infantry reinforcements that had arrived from Basra, the 2nd battalion
During the night of 17–18 May, elements of the Gurkha battalion, a company of RAF Assyrian Levies, RAF Armoured Cars and some captured Iraqi howitzers crossed the Euphrates using improvised cable ferries.[nb 16] They crossed the river at Sin el Dhibban and approached Fallujah from the village of Saqlawiyah. During the early hours of the day, one company of the 1st battalion KORR were air-transported by 4 Valentias and landed on the Baghdad road beyond the town near Notch Fall. A company of RAF Assyrian Levies, supported by artillery from Kingcol, was ordered to secure the bridge across the river. Throughout the day the RAF bombed positions in the town and along the Baghdad road, avoiding a general bombardment of the town because of the civilian population. On 19 May 57 aircraft bombarded Iraqi positions within and around Fallujah, dropping ten tons of bombs in 134 sorties.[137]
During the afternoon a ten-minute bombardment of Iraqi trenches near the bridge was made before the Assyrian Levies advanced, covered by artillery fire. Facing little opposition they captured the bridge within 30 minutes; they were then met by an Iraqi envoy who offered the surrender of the garrison and the town. 300 prisoners were taken, with no British casualties.[138][139][140] The Luftwaffe responded to the British capture of the city by attacking the Habbaniya airfield, destroying and damaging several aircraft and inflicting a number of casualties.[141] On 18 May, Major-General Clark and AVM D'Albiac arrived in Habbaniya by air, but determined not to interfere with the ongoing operations of Colonel Roberts.[135] On 21 May, having secured Fallujah, Roberts returned to Shaibah and to his duties with the 10th Indian Infantry Division.[137]
Iraqi counterattack
On 22 May, the Iraqi 6th Infantry Brigade of the Iraqi 3rd Infantry Division conducted a counter-attack against the British forces within Fallujah, starting at 02:30 hours, supported by a number of Italian-built L3/35 light tanks. By 03:00 the Iraqis reached the north-eastern outskirts of the town. Two light tanks which had penetrated into the town were quickly destroyed. By dawn British counter-attacks had pushed the Iraqis out of north-eastern Fallujah. The Iraqis now switched their attack to the south-eastern edge of the town, but met stiff resistance from the start and made no progress. By 10:00 Kingstone arrived with reinforcements, from Habbaniya, who were immediately thrown into battle. The newly arrived infantry companies, of the Essex Regiment, methodically cleared the Iraqi positions house-by-house. By 18:00 the remaining Iraqis had fled or were taken prisoner, sniper fire was silenced, six Iraqi light tanks were captured, and the town was secure.[142] On 23 May, aircraft of Fliegerführer Irak made a belated appearance, strafing British positions at Fallujah three times, being a nuisance but accomplishing little. A day earlier an air assault coordinated with Iraqi ground forces might have changed the outcome of the counter-attack.[143]
Jezireh
Meanwhile Glubb Pasha's Legionnaires dominated the tribal country north of Fallujah between the Euphrates and the Tigris, an area known as Jezireh. Lieutenant-General Glubb had been instructed to persuade the local tribes to stop supporting Rashid Ali's government. Using a combination of propaganda and raids against Iraqi government posts, his actions proved to be remarkably successful.[144] The British also used this period to increase air activity against the northern airfields of the Luftwaffe and to finally crush the German effort to support the Iraqis.[145]
Basra
In response to the initial Iraqi moves, the 10th Indian Infantry Division, under Major-General Fraser, occupied Basra airport, the city's docks, and the power station.[70] Elements of the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade, under Brigadier Powell, were used to occupy these sites. Between 18 and 29 April, two convoys had landed this brigade in the Basra area. 2nd battalion 8th Gurkha Rifles guarded the RAF airfield at Shabaih, 3rd battalion 11th Sikh Regiment secured the Maqil docks, and 2nd battalion 7th Gurkha Rifles were held in reserve.[146] Otherwise, no major operations took place in the Basra area. The principal difficulty was that there were insufficient troops to take over Maqil, Ashar, and Basra City concurrently. The Iraqi troops in Basra agreed to withdraw on 2 May, but did not.[109] On 6 May, the 21st Indian Infantry Brigade under the command of Brigadier Charles Joseph Weld arrived and disembarked at Basra. This was the 10th Indian Infantry Division's second brigade to arrive in Iraq.[146] The 21st Indian Infantry Brigade included 4th battalion 13th Frontier Force Rifles,[nb 17] 2nd battalion 4th Gurkha Rifles, and 2nd battalion 10th Gurkha Rifles.
Ashar
From 7 to 8 May elements of the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade and the 21st Indian Infantry Brigade captured Ashar, near Basra. Ashar was well defended, and the Iraqi defenders inflicted a number of casualties on the British attackers. The British units involved were A, B, C, and D companies of 2nd battalion 8th Gurkha Rifles and a half-section of Rolls-Royce armoured cars from 4th battalion 13th Frontier Force Rifles. 2nd battalion 4th Gurkha Rifles were held in reserve. As a result of the successful action against Ashar, Basra City was secured without a fight, but armed resistance from Iraqi police and Army units continued until 17 May.[147] While the Basra area was now secured, it was flood season in Iraq, and the difficulty of northward movement from Basra by rail, road, or river towards Baghdad stifled further operations. In addition, Iraqi forces occupied points along the Tigris and along the railway to further discourage northward movement.[50]
On 8 May, operations in Iraq were passed, from under the control of Auchinleck's India Command, to the command of Wavell's Middle East Command.[9][148] Lieutenant-General Edward Quinan arrived from India to replace Fraser as commander of Iraqforce. Quinan's immediate task was to secure Basra as a base. He was ordered by Wavell not to advance north until the co-operation of the local tribes was fully assured. Quinan could also not contemplate any move north for three months on account of the flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates.[9][149]
Directives were issued to Quinan prior to his assuming command. On 2 May, he had been directed as follows: "(a) Develop and organise the port of Basra to any extent necessary to enable such forces, our own or Allied, as might be required to operate in the Middle East including Egypt, Turkey, Iraq, and Iran, to be maintained. (b) Secure control of all means of communication, including all aerodromes and landing grounds in Iraq, and develop these to the extent requisite to enable the Port of Basra to function to its fullest capacity." Quinan was further instructed to "begin at once to plan a system of defences to protect the Basra Base against attack by armoured forces supported by strong air forces, and also to be ready to take special measures to protect: (i) Royal Air Force installations and personnel at Habbaniya and Shaiba. (ii) The lives of British subjects in Baghdad and elsewhere in Iraq. (iii) The Kirkuk oilfields and the pipe line to Haifa." Lastly, Quinan was directed "to make plans to protect the
Operations Regulta and Regatta
On 23 May, Wavell flew to Basra to discuss further reinforcements and operations in Iraq with Auchinleck. Additionally, he instructed Quinan, commanding the Indian forces there, to make plans for an advance from Basra towards Baghdad.[50] On 27 May, the forces from Basra started to advance northwards. In Operation Regulta, the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade, known as the "Euphrates Brigade", advanced along the Euphrates by boat and by road. In Operation Regatta, the 21st Indian Infantry Brigade, known as the "Tigris Brigade", advanced up the Tigris by boat to Kut.[43][150] On 30 May, the 10th Indian Infantry Division's third brigade, 25th Indian Infantry Brigade under Brigadier Ronald Mountain, arrived and disembarked at Basra. The 25th Indian Infantry Brigade included 3rd battalion 9th Jat Regiment, 2nd battalion 11th Royal Sikh Regiment, and 1st battalion 5th Mahratta Light Infantry.[151] In June 1941, additional British forces arrived in Basra from India. On 9 June, the 17th Indian Infantry Brigade arrived and, on 16 June, the 24th Indian Infantry Brigade arrived.[43]
Iraqi collapse
The British forces from Habbaniya pressed on to Baghdad after the defence of Fallujah. Major-General Clark decided to maintain the momentum because he suspected that the Iraqis did not appreciate just how small and vulnerable his forces actually were. Clark had a total of about 1,450 men to attack at least 20,000 Iraqi defenders. However, Clark did enjoy an advantage in the air.[152]
Baghdad
On the night of 27 May, the British advance on Baghdad began. The advance made slow progress and was hindered by extensive inundations and by the many destroyed bridges over the irrigation waterways which had to be crossed.
Aftermath
In the immediate aftermath of the fall of Rashid Ali's "National Defence Government" and the armistice, Baghdad was torn apart by rioting and looting.[109] Much of the violence was channelled towards the city's Jewish Quarter; over 180 Jewish residents were killed and about 850 injured before the Iraqi police were ordered to restore order with live ammunition.[156][155]
At least two British accounts of the conflict praised the efforts of the air and ground forces at RAF Habbaniya. According to Churchill, the landing of the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade at Basra on 18 April was "timely", and in his opinion had forced Rashid Ali into premature action. He added that the "spirited defence" of Habbaniya by the Flying School was a "prime factor" in British success.[157] Wavell wrote that the "gallant defence" of Habbaniya and the bold advance of Habforce discouraged the Iraqi Army, while the Germans in their turn were prevented from sending further reinforcements by "the desperate resistance of our troops in Crete, and their crippling losses in men and aircraft."[20]
On 18 June, Lieutenant-General Quinan was given command of all British and Commonwealth forces in Iraq. Before this, Iraqforce was more or less limited to the forces landed at and advancing from Basra.[109]
After the Anglo-Iraq War, elements of Iraqforce (known as Iraq Command from 21 June) were used to attack the Vichy French-held
On 20 June, Churchill told Wavell that he was to be replaced by Auchinleck.[158] Of Wavell, Auchinleck wrote: "In no sense do I wish to infer that I found an unsatisfactory situation on my arrival – far from it. Not only was I greatly impressed by the solid foundations laid by my predecessor, but I was also able the better to appreciate the vastness of the problems with which he had been confronted and the greatness of his achievements, in a command in which some 40 different languages are spoken by the British and Allied Forces."[159]
British forces remained in Iraq until 26 October 1947, and the country remained effectively under British control.[citation needed] The British considered the occupation of Iraq necessary to ensure that access to its strategic oil resources was maintained. On 18 August 1942, General Maitland Wilson was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Persia and Iraq Command. By 15 September, he was headquartered in Baghdad. Wilson's primary task was "to secure at all costs from land and air attack the oil fields and oil installations in Persia and Iraq." His secondary task was "to ensure the transport from the Persian Gulf ports of supplies to Russia to the maximum extent possible without prejudicing [his] primary task."[160]
While Rashid Ali and his supporters were in alliance with the Fascist Regime in Italy[161] the war demonstrated that Iraq's independence was at best conditional on British approval of the government's actions.[citation needed] Rashid Ali and the Mufti of Jerusalem fled to Persia, then to Turkey, then to Italy, and finally to Berlin, Germany, where Ali was welcomed by Hitler as head of the Iraqi government-in-exile.[citation needed]
Battle honours
The British and Commonwealth system of
See also
- Germany–Iraq relations
- Iraq–Italy relations
- Iraq–United Kingdom relations
- World War II
- List of British military equipment of World War II- Due to British influence in Iraq after World War I Iraqi army would have mainly been using British equipment at the time
Notes
Explanatory footnotes
- ^ HMAS Yarra, representing Australia, participated at sea.[1]
- ^ HMNZS Leander, representing New Zealand, participated at sea.[2]
- ^ Greek airmen undergoing training at Habbaniya flew sorties against the Iraqis.[3]
- ^ On 30 May Rashid Ali and his supporters fled to Iran. At 4 am on 31 May, the Mayor of Baghdad signed an armistice on a bridge across the Washash Canal.[8] Mercol, Gocol, and Harcol operations against guerrillas continued into June.
- ^ See Iraqforce; Habforce constituted one reinforced Brigade group while the force based at RAF Habbaniya constituted the other.
- RAF Lydda, also in Palestine, to fly combat missions over Iraq.[15]
- ^ See Role of Middle East Command for further details on the three Commanders-in-Chief based within the Mediterranean and Middle East.
- ^ Wavell indicates that Fraser commanded the forces being landed at Basra.[60]
- ^ Six Gloster Gladiators fighters and one Vickers Wellington bomber, carrying spare parts.[14]
- ^ Lyman states that on the first day the Iraqi force had in fact deployed three infantry battalions and an artillery brigade on the escarpment.[73] Wavell indicates that, on 30 April, two brigades and some armoured cars took up positions on the escarpment.[1]
- ^ Eight bombers from No. 70 Squadron RAF were initially dispatched and were later followed by 10 bombers from No. 37 Squadron RAF.[11]
- ^ The Wellington bombers, based at Shaibah, only took part in these aerial attacks up to 10 May and returned to Egypt two days later.[85]
- ^ Some sources indicate that this unit was named "Special Force Junck" (Sonderkommando Junck)[94]
- ^ Playfair states this force was made up initially of 14 Messerschmitt Bf 110 and seven Heinkel He 111s.[4] Lyman states it was 12 Heinkel He 111s and 12 Messerschmitt Bf 110s,[89] while Mackenzie states the force consisted of 15 Heinkel 111s and 14 Messerschmitt Bf 110s.[19]
- ^ Accounts vary, but there are indications that the "Blenheim bomber" was a German Heinkel 111 of Fliegerführer Irak.[38]
- ^ The cable ferry was fashioned by a section of the Queen Victoria's Own Madras Sappers and Miners flown in from Basra. Loaded barges were hooked onto a fixed wire cable they had stretched taught across the river, which was 750 feet (230 m) wide at the point of crossing.[136]
- ^ Included two troops of Rolls-Royce armoured cars.[146]
Citations
- ^ a b c d e f Wavell, p. 4094.
- ^ Waters, p. 24.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-84884-798-9.
- ^ a b c d Playfair 1956, p. 195.
- ^ a b c d e Playfair 1956, p. 196.
- ISBN 978-1-84884-336-3.
- ^ a b Playfair 1956, pp. 182–183.
- ^ Playfair 1956, pp. 192, 332.
- ^ a b c d e f Playfair 1956, p. 186.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Playfair 1956, p. 179.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Playfair 1956, p. 183.
- ISBN 978-0-521-13261-9.
- ^ a b Mackenzie, p. 101.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Playfair 1956, p. 182.
- ^ a b c d Jackson, p. 159.
- ^ url="https://resources.saylor.org/wwwresources/archived/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/HIST351-10.2.2-Anglo-Iraqi-War.pdf"
- ^ Lyman, Iraq 1941, p. 25.
- ^ a b c d e Lyman, pp. 25–26.
- ^ a b c Mackenzie, p. 100.
- ^ a b c d Wavell, p. 3439.
- ^ "Resources.saylor.org" (PDF). Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
- ^ Playfair 1956, p. 193.
- ^ Lyman, p. 48.
- ^ Peretz, p. 107.
- ^ Peretz, p. 441.
- ^ Playfair 1954, p. 14.
- ^ Peretz, p. 443.
- ^ a b c Playfair 1956, p. 177.
- ^ a b Playfair 1954, p. 15.
- ^ a b c Lyman, p. 18.
- ^ Lake 1999, p. 106.
- ^ Lunt 1981, p. 42.
- ^ Youssef Aboul-Enein, Basil Aboul-Enein. The Secret War for the Middle East: The Influence of Axis and Allied Intelligence operations During WW2. pp. 51–54. Naval Institute Press, 2013.
- ^ a b c Churchill, p. 224.
- ^ a b c d Playfair 1956, p. 178.
- ^ Lyman, p. 12.
- ^ Lyman, p. 13.
- ^ a b c d Lyman, p. 16.
- ^ a b c d Lyman, p. 31.
- ^ a b Lyman, p. 25.
- ^ Ammentorp, Major-General George Guy Waterhouse
- ^ The Crossley "IGA3" armoured car
- ^ a b c Lyman, p. 88.
- ^ Lyman, p.21.
- ^ Lyman, p. 26.
- ^ Lyman, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Warwick, In Every Place, p. 9.
- ^ Legate, Bryan (8 September 2014). "Two Dragons, or a Seal and a Walrus". Royal Air Force Museum. Retrieved 8 April 2020.
- ^ Warwick, In Every Place, p. 281.
- ^ a b c Wavell, p. 3438.
- ^ a b Lyman, p. 22.
- ^ Lyman, p. 23.
- ^ a b Wavell, p. 3437.
- ^ Lyman, p. 15.
- ^ Thomas, p. 127.
- ^ Playfair 1956, pp. 178–179.
- ^ a b Jackson, p. 148.
- ^ Playfair 1956, pp. 177–178.
- ^ Churchill, p. 225.
- ^ a b c Wavell, p. 4093.
- ^ a b c d Playfair 1956, p. 181.
- ^ a b Lyman, p. 28.
- ^ Mackenzie, p. 92.
- ^ a b c Mackenzie, p. 96.
- ^ a b Lyman, p. 20.
- ^ a b c Martin, p. 42.
- ^ Playfair 1956, pp. 179–180.
- ^ Churchill, pp. 225–226.
- ^ Mackenzie, pp. 92–93.
- ^ a b Jackson, p. 149.
- ^ a b Mackenzie, p. 93.
- ^ "RAF Museum British Military Aviation in 1941 – Part 2 entry for 30 April". RAF Museum. Archived from the original on 10 February 2009. Retrieved 13 December 2008.
- ^ a b Lyman, p. 39.
- ^ a b c d Mackenzie, p. 94.
- ^ Richards, pp. 314–316.
- ^ Playfair 1956, pp. 181–182.
- ^ Len Deighton (1993), Blood, Tears and Folly
- ^ Playfair 1956, p. 367.
- ^ a b Jackson, p. 151.
- ^ Mackenzie, p. 95.
- ^ a b "RAF Valley No 4 Flying Training School". Royal Air Force. Archived from the original on 28 June 2013. Retrieved 21 December 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f Playfair 1956, p. 184.
- ^ Lyman, p. 43.
- ^ Lyman, p. 19.
- ^ a b c d e Playfair 1956, p. 188.
- ^ Kiwarkis. "Assyrian R.A.F. Levies: 1941 Habbanyia, Battle for Habbaniya – 1941 War Diary". Archived from the original on 20 December 2008.
- ^ a b Lyman, p. 51.
- ^ Churchill, p. 230.
- ^ a b c d Lyman, p. 63.
- ^ a b c Sutherland & Canwell, p. 34.
- ^ Playfair 1956, pp. 194–195.
- ^ Churchill, p. 288.
- ^ Sutherland & Canwell, p. 35.
- ^ Weal, p. 102.
- ^ Kurowski, p. 131.
- ^ Lyman, p. 65.
- ^ Time magazine, 30 June 1941.
- ^ New York Times, 18 May 1941, p. 6.
- ^ a b Lyman, p. 64.
- ^ Churchill, p. 289.
- ^ Sutherland & Canwell, p. 40.
- ^ Lyman, pp. 66–68.
- ^ Sutherland & Canwell, p. 41.
- ^ Sutherland & Canwell, p. 42.
- ^ a b c Sutherland & Canwell, p. 43.
- ^ a b Sutherland & Canwell, p. 44.
- ^ Sutherland & Canwell, pp. 34–39.
- ^ a b Thomas 2002, p. 81.
- ^ a b c d e Wavell, p. 4095.
- ^ a b Churchill, p. 234.
- ^ Lembo, Daniele. "La squadriglia speciale Irak." Aerei nella Storia Magazine, Delta editions, Parma, 9/1999, pp. 34–38.
- ^ a b c Lyman, p. 57.
- ^ a b c Playfair 1956, p. 187.
- ^ Martin, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Lyman, p.16.
- ^ Playfair 1956, pp. 184–185.
- ^ a b Young, p. 7.
- ^ de Chair, p. 18.
- ^ Glubb, pp. 263–267.
- ^ a b Jackson, p. 152.
- ^ Churchill, p. 228.
- ^ Wavell, p. 3433.
- ^ Martin, p. 44.
- ^ Martin, pp. 44–45.
- ^ a b Martin, p. 45.
- ^ Lyman, p. 55.
- ^ Lyman, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Lyman, p. 53.
- ^ Martin, p. 46.
- ^ a b Martin, p. 47.
- ^ Mackenzie, p. 102.
- ^ a b Martin, p. 48.
- ^ Martin, p. 49.
- ^ Lyman, p. 89.
- ^ a b Lyman, p. 69.
- ^ Mackenzie, pp. 102–103.
- ^ a b Lyman, p. 75.
- ^ Lyman, p. 74.
- ^ Martin, pp. 49–50.
- ^ Playfair 1956, p. 189.
- ^ Playfair 1956, p. 191.
- ^ Lyman, pp. 75–76.
- ^ Lyman, p. 76.
- ^ Lyman, pp. 76–77.
- ^ Churchill, pp. 233–234.
- ^ a b c Lyman, p. 32.
- ^ Lyman, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Mackenzie, p. 97.
- ^ Mackenzie, pp. 101–102.
- ^ Lyman, p. 17.
- ^ Lyman, p. 36.
- ^ Lyman, p. 77.
- ^ Lyman, pp. 84–85.
- ^ Mackenzie, p. 104.
- ^ a b c Lyman, p. 86.
- ^ Kaplan, Robert D. (April 2014). "In Defense of Empire". The Atlantic. pp. 13–15.
- ^ Churchill, pp. 235–236.
- ^ Mead 2007, p. 476.
- ^ Auchinleck, p. 4215.
- ^ Wilson, p. 4333.
- ^ "Italy and Saudi Arabia confronting the challenges of the XXI century" p. 20.
- ^ Rodger, p. 271.
General and cited references
Books
- Auchinleck, Claude (1946). Despatch on Operations in the Middle East From 5th July, 1941 to 31st October 1941. London: War Office. in "No. 37695". The London Gazette (Supplement). 20 August 1946. pp. 4215–4230.
- Broich, John. Blood, Oil, and the Axis: The Allied Resistance against a Fascist State in Iraq and the Levant, 1941. Abrams Press, 2019, p. 365.
- OCLC 633936612.
- ISBN 0-395-41057-6.
- Dudgeon, Anthony (2000). Hidden Victory: The Battle of Habbaniya, May 1941. Stroud and Charleston: ISBN 0-7524-2001-1.
- Dunford Wood, Colin (2020). The War Diaries of Colin Dunford Wood, 1939-41, India and Iraq. London: ISBN 978-1-83853-848-4.
- Dunford Wood, James (2023). The Big Little War: a WW2 epic. London: ISBN 978-1-7392668-0-6.
- OCLC 798611.
- Jackson, Ashley (2006). The British Empire and the Second World War. London: Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 1-85285-417-0.
- James, Barrie G. (2009). Hitler's Gulf War, The Fight for Iraq 1941. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Aviation. ISBN 978-1-84884-090-4.
- Kiwarkis, Gaby. "Assyrian RAF Levies". Retrieved 1 January 2016.
- Kurowski, Franz (2005). The Brandenburger Commandos: Germany's Elite Warrior Spies in World War II. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. ISBN 0-8117-3250-9.
- Lake, Alan. Flying Units of the RAF – The ancestry, formation and disbandment of all flying units from 1912. Airlife Publishing Ltd, Shrewsbury, UK, 1999, ISBN 1-84037-086-6.
- Lunt, James. Imperial Sunset – Frontier Soldiering in the 20th Century. Macdonald, London and Sydney, 1981.
- Lyman, Robert (2006). Iraq 1941: The Battles for Basra, Habbaniya, Fallujah and Baghdad. Campaign. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 1-84176-991-6.
- OCLC 59637091.
- Martin, Colonel Thomas Alexander (1952). The Essex Regiment, 1929–1950. Brentwood: Essex Regiment Association. OCLC 4045659.
- Mead, Richard (2007). Churchill's Lions: A Biographical Guide to the Key British Generals of World War II. Stroud: Spellmount. ISBN 978-1-86227-431-0.
- Peretz, Don (2004) [1963]. The Middle East Today. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-027594-576-3.
- OCLC 888934805.
- ISBN 1-84574-066-1.
- Rodger, Alexander (2003). Battle Honours of the British Empire and Commonwealth Land Forces. Marlborough: The Crowood Press. ISBN 1-86126-637-5.
- Richards, Denis (1953). The Royal Air Force 1939–1945. Vol. I: The Fight at Odds. London: HM Stationery Office. OCLC 64981511.
- Thomas, Andrew (2002). Gloster Gladiator Aces. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 1-84176-289-X.
- Thomas, David A (1972). Nazi Victory: Crete 1941. New York: Stein and Day. ISBN 0-8128-1559-9.
- Warwick, Nigel W. M. (2014). In Every Place: The RAF Armoured Cars in the Middle East 1921–1953. Rushden: Forces & Corporate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9574725-2-5.
- Waters, S. D. (2008). HMNZS Leander. Wellington, NZ: Merriam Press. ISBN 978-1-4357-5892-6.
- Wavell, Archibald (1946). Despatch on Operations in the Middle East From 7th February, 1941 to 15th July 1941. London: War Office. in "No. 37638". The London Gazette (Supplement). 3 July 1946. pp. 3423–3444.
- Wavell, Archibald (1946). Despatch on Operations in Iraq, East Syria and Iran from 10th April, 1941 to 12th January, 1942. London: War Office. in "No. 37685". The London Gazette (Supplement). 13 August 1946. pp. 4093–4102.
- Weal, John (1999). Messerschmitt Bf 110 Zerstörer Aces of World War 2. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 1-85532-753-8.
- Wilson, Maitland (1946). Despatch on the Persia and Iraq Command Covering the Period from 21st August, 1942, to 17th February, 1943. London: War Office. in "No. 37703". The London Gazette(Supplement). 28 August 1946. pp. 4333–4340.
- Young, Peter (1972). The Arab Legion. Men-at-Arms. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 0-85045-084-5.
Websites
- Ammentorp, Steen. "Major-General George Guy Waterhouse". Generals of World War II website. Retrieved 2 November 2009.
- "4 FTS History". RAF Valley. Royal Air Force. Archived from the original on 28 June 2013. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
- "Royal Air Force Museum". Royal Air Force. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
Further reading
- Jackson, Ashley (2018). Persian Gulf Command: A History of the Second World War in Iran and Iraq. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-22196-1.
- "Archibald Wavell's Despatch on Operations in the Middle East From 7th February, 1941 to 15th July 1941" (PDF). Supplement to the London Gazette, Number 37638. 3 July 1946. Retrieved 31 October 2009.
- "Archibald Wavell's Despatch on Operations in Iraq, East Syria, and Iran From 10th April, 1941 to 12th January 1942" (PDF). Supplement to the London Gazette, Number 37685. 13 August 1946. Retrieved 26 September 2009.
- "Claude Auchinleck's Despatch on Operations in the Middle East From 5th July, 1941 to 31st October 1941". Supplement to the London Gazette, Number 37695. 20 August 1946. Retrieved 6 November 2009.
- "Maitland Wilson's Despatch on the Persia and Iraq Command Covering the Period from 21st August, 1942, to 17th February, 1943" (PDF). Supplement to the London Gazette, Number 37703. 28 August 1946. Retrieved 6 July 2017.