Ajuran Sultanate

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Ajuran Empire
)
This article is about the sultanate in the Horn of Africa. For the Somali clan, see Ajuran (clan).

Ajuuraan Sultanate
Dawladdii Ajuuraan (
Arabic
)
13th century–18th century
Flag of Ajuran Sultanate
The banner of Mogadishu
Oromo invasions
Mid-17th century
• Decline
18th century
Currency
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Mogadishu Sultanate
Tunni Sultanate
Geledi Sultanate
Hiraab Imamate
Today part ofSomalia
Ethiopia

The Ajuran Sultanate (

Arabic: سلطنة الأجورانية), natively referred to as Ajuuraan,[3] and often simply Ajuran,[4] was a medieval Muslim Empire in the Horn of Africa.[5] Founded by Somali Sultans[6][7] it ruled over large parts of the Horn of Africa during the Middle Ages.[8][5] It rose to power in the 13th century and would dominate the Indian Ocean trade for centuries to come. Through a strong centralised administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuran Empire successfully resisted Oromo invasions from the west and fought against Portuguese incursions from the east.[9][10][11][12]

Trading routes dating from ancient and early medieval periods of Somali maritime enterprise were strengthened and re-established, foreign trade and commerce in the coastal provinces flourished with ships sailing to and from kingdoms and empires in the Near East, East Asia, and the wider world.[13][14]

Etymology

The Ajuran Empire traces its name back to the Arabic word; إيجار (Ījārā), which means to rent or tax. A name well deserved for the exorbitant tributes paid to the Empire.[15]

Location

A 16th century map by Jan Huyghen[16]

Historically, the Sultanate of Mogadishu was confined by the Adal Sultanate in the north.[17][18] Throughout the Middle Ages, the Ajurans routinely aligned themselves politically with the Adalites.[19][20] Described as one country by Ibn Battuta, a journey to Mogadishu from the town of Zeila took him eight weeks to complete.[21][22]

The Ajuran Empire's sphere of influence in the Horn of Africa was among the largest in the region. At the height of its reach, the empire covered most of southern Somalia as well as eastern Ethiopia,[13][23] with its domain at one point extending from Hafun in the north to Kismayo in the south, and Qelafo in the west.[24][25][26]

Origins and the House of Garen

The House of Gareen
Known members
  • Ajuran
  • Baydan
  • Badbeydan
  • Walmuge
  • Sanle
  • Sanle Mage
  • Toore
  • Dhaqsoore

The House of Garen was the ruling hereditary dynasty of the Ajuran Empire.[27][28] Its origin lies in the Garen Kingdom that during the 13th century ruled parts of the Somali Region of Ethiopia.[29] With the migration of Somalis from the northern half of the Horn region southwards, new cultural and religious orders were introduced, influencing the administrative structure of the dynasty.[30] A system of governance began to evolve into an Islamic government. Through their genealogical Baraka, which came from the saint Balad (who was known to have come from outside the Kingdom).[31][32][33]

Administration

See also: Somali aristocratic and court titles
administrative center
of the Ajurans

The Ajuran nobility used many of the typical Somali aristocratic and court titles, with the Garen rulers styled Imam.[34] These leaders were the empire's highest authority, and counted multiple Sultans, Emirs, and Kings as clients or vassals. The Garen rulers also had seasonal palaces in Mareeg, Qelafo and Merca, important cities in the Empire were Mogadishu and Barawa. The state religion was Islam, and thus law was based on Sharia.[35][36][37]

  1. Imam – Head of State[38]
  2. Emir – Commander of the armed forces and navy
  3. Na'ibs – Viceroys[39]
  4. Wazirs – Tax and revenue collectors
  5. Qadis – Chief Judges

Citizenry

The Jubba River
Farms of Afgooye

Through their control of the region's wells, the Garen rulers effectively held a monopoly over their

nomadic subjects as they were the only hydraulic empire in Africa during their reign. Large wells made out of limestone were constructed throughout the state, which attracted Somali and Oromo nomads with their livestock.[40] The centralized regulations of the wells made it easier for the nomads to settle disputes by taking their queries to government officials who would act as mediators. Long distance caravan trade, a long-time practice in the Horn of Africa, continued unchanged in Ajuran times. Today, numerous ruined and abandoned towns throughout the interior of Somalia and the Horn of Africa are evidence of a once-booming inland trade network dating from the medieval period.[41]

With the centralized supervision of the Ajuran, farms in

Jubba rivers into the plantations where sorghum, maize, beans, grain and cotton were grown during the gu (Spring in Somali) and xagaa (Summer in Somali) seasons of the Somali calendar. This irrigation system was supported by numerous dikes and dams. To determine the average size of a farm, a land measurement system was also invented with moos, taraab and guldeed being the terms used.[42]

Taxation

See also: Mogadishu currency
Mogadishan currency
Citadel ruins of Gondershe

The State collected

durra, sorghum and bun, and from the nomads, cattle, camels and goats. The collecting of tribute was done by a wazir. Luxury goods imported from foreign lands were also presented as gifts to the Garen rulers by the coastal sultans
of the state.

A political device that was implemented by the Garen rulers in their realm was a form of

ius primae noctis,[43] which enabled them to create marriages that enforced their hegemonic rule over all the important groups of the empire. The rulers would also claim a large portion of the bride's wealth, which at the time was 100 camels.[44]

For trade, the Ajuran Empire minted its own Ajuran currency.[45] It also utilized the Mogadishan currency originally minted by the Sultanate of Mogadishu, which later became incorporated into the Ajuran Empire.[46] Mogadishan coins have been found as far away as the present-day country of the United Arab Emirates in the Middle East.[47]

Urban and maritime centers

The walled city of Mogadishu on the 16th century Miller Atlas.

The urban centers of

Persia, Egypt, Portugal, and as far away as China.[49][50][51][52]

Vasco da Gama, who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century[53] noted that it was a large city with houses of four or five storeys high and big palaces in its centre and many mosques with cylindrical minarets.[54][55] In the 16th century, Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya sailed to Mogadishu with cloths and spices for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory.[56][57] Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.[58][59]

Mogadishu, the center of a thriving weaving industry known as toob benadir (specialized for the markets in Egypt and Syria),[60] together with Merca and Barawa also served as transit stops for Swahili merchants from Mombasa and Malindi and for the gold trade from Kilwa.[61] There were Jewish merchants from the Hormuz who brought their Indian textile and fruits to the Somali coast in exchange for grain and wood.[62][63]

Trading relations were established with

Omani interference used the ports of Merca and Barawa (which were out of the two powers' jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety.[67]

Economy

See also: Maritime history of Somalia
Venetian Empire
in Europe.

The Ajuran Empire relied on agriculture and trade for most of its income. Major agricultural towns were located on the

Silk Road commerce, trade in the Indian Ocean, and commercial enterprise as far as East Asia.[13][68]

The Ajuran Empire also minted its own

Persia.[45]

Through the use of commercial vessels, compasses, multiple port cities, light houses and other technology, the merchants of the Ajuran Empire did brisk business with traders from the following states:

Trading countries in Asia Imports Exports
Ming Empire
 celadon wares and their currency horses, exotic animals, and ivory
Mughal Empire
spices
 gold, wax and wood
Malacca Sultanate ambergris and porcelain
cloth and gold
Maldive Islands
cowries
 musk and sheep
Kingdom of Jaffna
 cinnamon and their currency
cloth
Trading countries in the Near East
Ottoman Empire
cannons
textiles
Safavid Persian Empire
textiles and fruit
 grain and wood
Trading countries in Europe
Portuguese Empire gold
cloth
Venetian Empire
 sequins –
Dutch Empire
 – –
Trading countries in Africa
Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)
 –
cloth
Adal Sultanate – –
Ethiopian Empire – –
Swahili Coast
 – –
Monomopata gold and ivory
cloth
Gonderine Ethiopian Empire gold and cattle
cloth
Merina Kingdom – –

Diplomacy

Ajuran Empire maintained commercial ties with the Ming dynasty[69]

With their maritime pursuits, the Ajuran Empire established trading and diplomatic ties across the old world, especially in Asia, from being close allies of the grand power of the

Ming Dynasty, paving the way for merchants from Ajuran to embark on great maritime expeditions, as far away as Java and Vietnam.[70][71]

The ruler of the Ajuran Empire sent ambassadors to

hippos, giraffes and gazelles.[74][75][76][77]

Major cities

Medieval city of Barawa

The Ajuran Empire was an influential Somali kingdom that held sway over several cities and towns in central and southern Somalia during the Middle Ages.

major cities in present-day Somalia.[79][80]
A few of the cities and towns were abandoned or destroyed:

Capital
Port cities
  • Hobyo (harbor city in the Mudug region of Somalia)
  • Eyl (port town in the Nugal region of Somalia)
  • Hafun (port town in the Bari region of Somalia)
  • Galgaduud
    region of Somalia)
  • Kismayo (port city in the Lower Juba region of Somalia)
  • Lower Shebelle
    region of Somalia)
  • Middle Shebelle
    region of Somalia)
Other cities

Culture

See also: Somali architecture
stone tablet

The Ajurans developed a very rich culture combining various forms of

Arabic was prominently used for commercial and religious purposes.[84][85][86][87]

Example of a historic Somali figurehead from Mogadishu

The traditional martial art

Masjid Fakhr al-Din being one of the oldest mosques in Africa.[89]

Artistic carving was considered the craft of men similar to how the Somali textile industry was mainly a women's business. Amongst the

woodwork, was widespread and could be found on the most basic objects such as spoons, combs and bowls, but it also included more complex structures such as the portable nomadic tent, the aqal.[90]

In the Merca area, various pillar tombs still exist, which local tradition holds were built in the 16th century, when the Ajuran Empire's naa'ibs governed the district.[91][92]

Muslim migrations

Arab and Persian
families would call the Ajuran realm their home.

The late 15th and 17th centuries saw the arrival of Muslim families from

Hadhrami families from Yemen and the Muslims from Spain fleeing the Inquisition.[93] Others came to conduct business or for religious purposes. Due to their strong tradition in religious learning, the new Muslim communities also enjoyed high status among the Somali ruling elite and commoners.[94][95]

Bale

The tomb of Sheikh Hussein

The most famous Somali scholar of Islam from the Ajuraan period is Sheikh Hussein, who was born in Merca, one of the power jurisdiction and cultural centers of the Ajuran Empire.[96] He is credited with converting the Sidamo people living in the area of what is now the Bale Province, Ethiopia to Islam.[97] He is also credited with establishing the Sultanate of Bale. Despite the Bale Sultanate not being directly under Ajuran rule, the two kingdoms were deeply connected and Bale was heavily influenced by Ajuran.[98][99]

His tomb lies in the town of Sheikh Hussein in what is considered the most sacred place in the country for Ethiopian Muslims, in particular those of Oromo ethnic descent.[100][101]

Military

Almnara Somalia defensive tower
Model of a medieval Mogadishan ship

The Ajuran State had a standing army with which the governors ruled and protected their subjects. The bulk of the army consisted of recruited soldiers who did not have any loyalties to the traditional Somali clan system, thereby making them more reliable.

Persian and Turkish mercenaries were at times employed as well.[105][106]

In the early period, the army's weapons consisted of traditional Somali weapons such as

cannons.[107][108]

The Ottomans would also remain a key ally during the Ajuran-Portuguese wars. Horses used for military purposes were raised in the interior, and numerous stone fortifications were erected to provide shelter for the army in the coastal districts.[109] In each province, the soldiers were under the supervision of a military commander known as an emir.[103] The coastal areas and the lucrative Indian Ocean trade were protected by a navy.[110]

Ajuran-Portuguese battles

Main article:
Somali-Portuguese conflicts
The Ottomans regularly aided the Ajurans in their struggles with the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean.
During the Battle of Barawa, Tristão da Cunha was wounded and requested to be knighted by Albuquerque.[111]

The European Age of Discovery brought Europe's then superpower the Portuguese Empire to the coast of East Africa, which enjoyed a flourishing trade with foreign nations. The southeastern city-states of Kilwa, Mombasa, Malindi, Pate and Lamu were all systematically sacked and plundered by the Portuguese.[112] Tristão da Cunha then set his eyes on Ajuran territory, where the Battle of Barawa was fought.[113] After a long period of engagement, the Portuguese soldiers burned the city and looted it.[114] Fierce resistance by the local populace and soldiers resulted in the failure of the Portuguese to permanently occupy the city, and the inhabitants who had fled to the interior eventually returned and rebuilt the city.[115][116][117]

After Barawa, Tristão set sail for Mogadishu, the richest city on the East African coast.[118][119] Word had spread of what had happened in Barawa, and a large troop mobilization took place. Many horsemen, soldiers and battleships in defense positions were guarding the city. Nevertheless, Tristão opted to storm and attempt to conquer the city, although every officer and soldier in his army opposed this, fearing certain defeat if they were to engage their opponents in battle. Tristão heeded their advice and sailed for Socotra instead.[120][121]

Mombasa surrendered to a joint Somali-Omani force.[122]

Over the next decades tensions remained high and the increased contact between Somali

Southeast Africa.[110]

The Somali-Ottoman offensive managed to drive out the Portuguese from several important cities such as Pate, Mombasa and Kilwa. However, the Portuguese governor sent envoys to Portuguese India requesting a large Portuguese fleet. This request was answered and it reversed the previous offensive of the Muslims into one of defense. The Portuguese armada managed to re-take most of the lost cities and began punishing their leaders, but they refrained from attacking Mogadishu, securing the city's autonomy in the Indian Ocean.[46][125] The Ottoman Empire would remain an economic partner.[13] Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries the Ajurans successively defied Portuguese hegemony on the Indian Ocean by employing a new coinage which followed the Ottoman pattern, thus proclaiming an attitude of economic independence in regard to the Portuguese.[126][127][128][129]

Gaal Madow

In the mid-17th century, the Oromo people collectively began expanding from their homeland towards the southern Somali coast at a time when the Ajurans were at the height of their power.[130] The Garen rulers conducted several military expeditions known as the Gaal Madow Wars on the Oromo invaders, converting those that were captured to Islam.[131][132][133][134]

Decline

The Ajuran Empire slowly declined in power at the end of the 17th century. The most prominent of setbacks were the dethronement of the

Gobroon dynasty.[136][137]

Abstract painting of Muqdisho during unrest

Taxation and the practice of primae noctis were the main catalysts for the revolts against Ajuran rulers.[138] The loss of port cities and fertile farms meant that much needed sources of revenue were lost to the rebels.[139]

Somali maritime enterprise significantly declined after the collapse of the Ajuran Empire. However, other polities such as the Warsangali Sultanate,

Dervish state in a way ensured its continuity.[140]

Legacy

The empire left an extensive

warfare, trade linkages and alliances.[28][142]

In the fifteenth century, for example, the Ajuran Empire was the only

Geledi Sultanate.[146]

See also

Part of a series on the
History of Somalia
Prehistory
Ancient
(c. 1st century)
Middle Ages
Early modern
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Sources cited

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