Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim
6th President of Finland | |
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In office 4 August 1944 – 4 March 1946 | |
Prime Minister | |
Preceded by | Risto Ryti |
Succeeded by | Juho Kusti Paasikivi |
2nd Regent of Finland | |
In office 12 December 1918 – 26 July 1919 | |
Preceded by | Pehr Evind Svinhufvud |
Succeeded by | Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg (as President of the Republic) |
Personal details | |
Born | Finnish (1917-1951) | 4 June 1867
Spouse |
Anastasie Arapova
(m. 1892; div. 1919) |
Children |
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Parents |
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Relatives |
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Profession | Military officer, statesman |
Signature | |
Military service | |
Allegiance |
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Branch/service | |
Years of service |
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The
A Finnish delegation appointed Mannerheim as the military chief of the Whites in January 1918, and he led them to victory, holding a triumphal
Accordingly, after the Soviets invaded Finland in November 1939 in what became the Winter War, Mannerheim replaced President Kallio as commander-in-chief, and occupied the post for the next five years. He became a unifying symbol of the war effort and part of the core leadership of the country.[4] He personally participated in the planning of Operation Barbarossa[7] and led the Finnish Defence Forces in an invasion of the Soviet Union alongside Nazi Germany known as the Continuation War (1941–1944). In 1944, when the prospect of Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II became clear, the Finnish Parliament appointed Mannerheim as President of Finland, and he oversaw peace negotiations with the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom. Already in declining health, he resigned the presidency in 1946 and spent much of his remaining life in a sanatorium in Switzerland, where he wrote his memoirs, and where he died in 1951.[8]
Participants in a Finnish survey taken 53 years after his death voted Mannerheim the greatest Finn of all time.[9] During his own lifetime he became, alongside Jean Sibelius, the best-known Finnish personage at home and abroad.[4] According to Finnish historian Tuomas Tepora, a cult of personality began to be built around Mannerheim right after the civil war.[10]
Given the broad recognition in Finland and elsewhere of his unparalleled role in establishing and later preserving Finland's independence from the Soviet Union, Mannerheim has long been referred to as the father of modern Finland,[11][12][13][14][15] and the New York Times called the Finnish capital Helsinki's Mannerheim Museum memorializing the leader's life and times "the closest thing there is to a [Finnish] national shrine".[13] Baron Mannerheim is the only person to have held the ranks of Marshal of Finland and Finnish field marshal.[16]
On the other hand, Mannerheim's personal reputation still strongly divides opinions among people even to this day, with some critics highlighting his role as the senior commander of the
Early life and military career
Ancestry
The
Childhood
Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim was born in the
Education
Mannerheim was sent to the Hamina Cadet School, a state school educating aristocrats for the Imperial Russian Army, in 1882.[24] The handsome young Baron towered over his classmates, standing 6 ft 4 in (1.93 m). He was expelled in 1886 when he left without permission.[25] Next he attended the Helsinki Private Lyceum, where he passed the university entrance examinations in June 1887.[26] From 1887 to 1889, Mannerheim attended the Nicholas Cavalry College in Saint Petersburg.[27] In January 1891, he joined the Chevalier Guard Regiment in Saint Petersburg.[28]
Service in the Imperial Russian Army
Mannerheim served in the Imperial Chevalier Guard until 1904. In 1896, he took part in the coronation of Emperor Nicholas II, standing for four hours in his full-dress Imperial Chevalier Guard uniform at the bottom of the steps leading up to the imperial throne.[29] Mannerheim always considered the coronation a high-point of his life, recalling with pride his role in what he called an "indescribably magnificent" coronation.[29] An expert rider and trained horseman, Mannerheim bought horses for the Russian army as one of his official duties. In 1903, he was put in charge of the model squadron in the Imperial Chevalier Guard and became a member of the equestrian training board of the cavalry regiments.[30]
Mannerheim volunteered for active service with the
Mannerheim, who had a long career in the Imperial Russian army, also rose to become a courtier of
With a small caravan, including a Cossack guide, Chinese interpreter, and Uyghur cook, Mannerheim first trekked to
He followed the
After returning to Russia in 1909 from the expedition, Mannerheim presented its results to the emperor to which Nicholas II listened with interest. There are many artifacts still on display in the museum.
At the beginning of
Mannerheim received leave to visit Finland and Saint Petersburg in early 1917 and witnessed the outbreak of the February Revolution. After returning to the front, he was promoted to lieutenant general in April 1917 (the promotion was backdated to February 1915), and took command of the 6th Cavalry Corps in the summer of 1917. However, Mannerheim fell out of favour with the new government, who regarded him as not supporting the revolution, and was relieved of his duties. He retired and returned to Finland.[43] Mannerheim kept a large portrait of Emperor Nicholas II in the living room of his house in Helsinki right up to his death, and when asked after the overthrow of the House of Romanov why he kept the portrait up, he always answered: "He was my emperor".[38]
Marriage and daughters
In 1892, he married a wealthy noble of Russian-Serbian heritage, Anastasia Arapova (1872–1936).[45][46] They had two daughters, Anastasie "Stasie" (1893–1978) and Sofia "Sophy" (1895–1963).[47] The couple separated in 1902 and divorced in 1919.[48]
Political career
The White General and the Regent of Finland
In
After the Whites' victory in the bitterly fought
Mannerheim secured recognition of Finnish independence from Britain and the United States. In July 1919, after he had confirmed a new,
Language skills
Mannerheim's mother tongue was
Interwar period
In the interwar years, Mannerheim held no public office, mainly because he was viewed by many politicians of the centre and left as a controversial figure for his ruthless battle with the
He kept busy heading the Finnish
In the 1920s and 1930s, Mannerheim returned to
In his second voyage, in 1936, he went by ship from
In 1929, Mannerheim refused the
The 1920 assassination attempt
After the end of the Civil War, the defeat experienced by the Reds was so bitter that Mannerheim became a target of assassination. One of the would-be assassins was Eino Rahja,[67] who was in charge of the Saint Petersburg International School of Red Officers, who began planning an assassination project by assembling eight groups of Finnish Red Guards in Saint Petersburg for this purpose. The attack was to be implemented in April 1920 during a White Guard's parade on the Hämeenkatu in Tampere, in which General Mannerheim participated.[62]
The men of the group gathered on April 3 at the Park Café in Hämeenkatu and at this stage Karl Salo, who belonged to the group, was assigned as a shooter and gave him a Colt pistol. However, the assassination attempt failed due to Salo's hesitation,[62] and during the crowd, Salo's securities Aleksander Weckman and Aleksanteri Suokas, equipped with Walther and Colt pistols, lost sight of him and never had time to shoot Mannerheim.[68]
On April 6, Weckman, who led the operation, got hold of Salo and gave him a week to kill either Mannerheim or the Minister of War and Uusimaa County Governor, Bruno Jalander,[69] otherwise he would die himself. This attempt was also unsuccessful, as Mannerheim and Jalander did not come to the Helsinki Conservation Party celebration after the authorities received a tip. Salo returned his pistol and escaped afterwards. Weckman and Suokas tried to escape to the Soviet Union with their two assistants but were arrested from the Helsinki-Vyborg train on the night of April 21. Salo was arrested in Espoo on April 23.[68]
Commander-in-Chief
When negotiations with the Soviet Union failed in 1939, and aware of the imminent war and deploring the lack of equipment and preparation of the army, Mannerheim resigned once again from the military council on 17 October 1939, declaring that he would agree to return to business only as Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Army. He officially became the supreme commander of the armies, at the age of 72, after the Soviet attack, the November 30, 1939. In a letter to his daughter Sophie, he stated, "I had not wanted to undertake the responsibility of commander-in-chief, as my age and my health entitled me, but I had to yield to appeals from the President of the Republic and the government, and now for the fourth time I am at war."[52]
He addressed the first of his often controversial orders of the day to the Defence Forces on the day the war began:
The President of the Republic has appointed me on 30 November 1939 as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces of the country. Brave soldiers of Finland! I enter on this task at a time when our hereditary enemy is once again attacking our country. Confidence in one's commander is the first condition for success. You know me and I know you and know that everyone in the ranks is ready to do his duty even to death. This war is nothing other than the continuation and final act of our War of Independence. We are fighting for our homes, our faith, and our country.[52]
The defensive field fortifications they manned became known as the Mannerheim Line.
Mannerheim spent most of the Winter War and Continuation War in his Mikkeli headquarters but made many visits to the front. Between the wars, he remained commander-in-chief.[66] Although Mannerheim's main task was to lead the war, he also knew how to strengthen and maintain the will of the soldiers to fight. He was famed for this quote:
Forts, cannons and foreign aid will not help unless every man himself knows that he is the guard of his country.[70]
Mannerheim kept relations with
Visit by Adolf Hitler
Mannerheim's 75th birthday, 4 June 1942, was a national celebration. The government granted him the unique title of
During the visit, an engineer of the Finnish broadcasting company Yleisradio, Thor Damen, succeeded in recording the first eleven minutes of Hitler's and Mannerheim's private conversation. This had to be done secretly, as Hitler never allowed off-guard recordings. Damen was assigned to record the official birthday speeches and Mannerheim's response and therefore placed microphones in some of the railway cars. However, Mannerheim and his guests chose to go to a car that did not have a microphone in it. Damen acted quickly, pushing a microphone through one of the car windows onto a net shelf just above where Hitler and Mannerheim were sitting. After eleven minutes of Hitler's and Mannerheim's private conversation, Hitler's SS bodyguards spotted the cords coming out of the window and realized that the Finnish engineer was recording the conversation. They gestured to him to stop recording immediately, and he complied. The SS bodyguards demanded that the tape be destroyed, but Yleisradio was allowed to keep the reel after promising to keep it in a sealed container. It was given to Kustaa Vilkuna, head of the state censors' office, and in 1957 returned to Yleisradio. It was released to the public a few years later. It is the only known recording of Hitler speaking outside of a formal occasion.[75][76]
There is an unsubstantiated story that while conversing with Hitler, Mannerheim lit a cigar. Mannerheim expected that Hitler would ask Finland for more help against the Soviet Union, which Mannerheim was unwilling to give. When Mannerheim lit up, all in attendance gasped, for Hitler's aversion to smoking was well known. Nevertheless, Hitler continued the conversation calmly, with no comment. By this test, Mannerheim could judge if Hitler was speaking from a position of strength or weakness. He refused Hitler, knowing that Hitler was in a weak position, and could not dictate to him.[65][66]
Shortly thereafter, Mannerheim returned the visit, traveling to Hitler's headquarters in East Prussia.[77]
End of war and presidency
In June 1944, Baron Gustaf Mannerheim, to ensure German support while a major Soviet offensive was threatening Finland, thought it necessary to agree to the pact the German Foreign Minister
When Germany was deemed sufficiently weakened, and the
A month after Mannerheim took office, the
Before deciding to accept the Soviet demands, Mannerheim wrote a missive directly to Hitler:[83]
Our German brothers-in-arms will forever remain in our hearts. The Germans in Finland were certainly not the representatives of foreign despotism but helpers and brothers-in-arms. But even in such cases foreigners are in difficult positions requiring such tact. I can assure you that during the past years nothing whatsoever happened that could have induced us to consider the German troops intruders or oppressors. I believe that the attitude of the German Army in northern Finland towards the local population and authorities will enter our history as a unique example of a correct and cordial relationship ... I deem it my duty to lead my people out of the war. I cannot and I will not turn the arms which you have so liberally supplied us against Germans. I harbour the hope that you, even if you disapprove of my attitude, will wish and endeavour like myself and all other Finns to terminate our former relations without increasing the gravity of the situation.
Mannerheim's term as president was difficult for him. Although he was elected for a full six-year term, he was 77 years old in 1944 and had accepted the office reluctantly after being urged to do so. The situation was exacerbated by frequent periods of ill-health, the demands of the Allied Control Commission, and the
Mannerheim was troubled by recurring health problems during 1945, and was absent on medical leave from his duties as president from November until February 1946. He spent six weeks in Portugal to restore his health.[85] After the announcement of the verdicts in the war crimes trials in February, Mannerheim decided to resign. He believed that he had accomplished the duties he had been elected to carry out: The war was ended, the armistice obligations carried out, and war responsibility trials finished.
Mannerheim resigned as president on 4 March 1946, giving as his reason his declining health and his view that the tasks he had been selected to carry out had been accomplished.
Final days and death
After his resignation,
Because Mannerheim was old and sickly, he personally wrote only certain passages of his memoirs. Some other parts he dictated. The remaining parts were written from his recollections by Mannerheim's various assistants, such as Colonel Aladár Paasonen; General Erik Heinrichs; Generals Grandell, Olenius and Martola; and Colonel Viljanen, a war historian. As long as Mannerheim was able to read, he proofread the typewritten drafts of his memoirs. He was almost totally silent about his private life, and focused instead on Finland's history, especially between 1917 and 1944. When Mannerheim suffered a fatal bowel obstruction in January 1951,[88] his memoirs were not yet in their finished form. They were published after his death.[57]
Mannerheim died on 27 January 1951 (28 January Finnish time), in the Cantonal Hospital in Lausanne (French: L'Hôpital cantonal à Lausanne; modern Lausanne University Hospital[89]), Switzerland. He was buried on 4 February 1951 in the Hietaniemi Cemetery in Helsinki in a state funeral with full military honours.
Legacy
Today, Mannerheim retains respect as Finland's greatest
Mannerheim's birthday, 4 June, is celebrated as Flag Day by the
Various landmarks across Finland honour Mannerheim, including most famously the Equestrian statue located on Helsinki's Mannerheimintie in front of the later-built Kiasma museum of modern art. Mannerheim Parks in both Turku and Seinäjoki include statues of him. Tampere's Mannerheim statue depicting the victorious Civil War general of the Whites was eventually placed in the forest some kilometres outside the city (in part due to lingering controversy over Mannerheim's Civil War role). Other statues, for examples, were erected in Mikkeli and Lahti.[92] On 5 December 2004, Mannerheim was voted the greatest Finnish person of all time in the Suuret suomalaiset (Great Finns) contest.[9]
From 1937 to 1967, at least five different Finnish postage stamps or stamp series were issued in honour of Mannerheim; and in 1960 the United States honoured Mannerheim as the "Liberator of Finland" with regular first-class domestic and international stamps (at the time four cents and eight cents respectively) as part of its Champions of Liberty series that included other notable figures such as
Mannerheim appears as a main character in Ilmari Turja's 1966 play and its the 1970 film adaptation The Headquarters, directed by Matti Kassila. In both the play and the film, Mannerheim was played by Joel Rinne.[96] Mannerheim was also played by Asko Sarkola in the 2001 television film Valtapeliä elokuussa 1940, directed by Veli-Matti Saikkonen.[97]
Military ranks
Ranks
In the Russian Army
- 1888: Non-commissioned officer
- 1889: Cornet
- 1891: Cornet of the Guard
- 1893: Lieutenant of the Guard
- 1902: Captain of the Guard
- 1904: Lieutenant Colonel
- 1905: Colonel
- 1911: Major General
- 1917: Lieutenant General
In the Finnish Army
- 1918: General of Cavalry
- 1933: Field Marshal
- 1942: Marshal of Finland
Supreme Command
- 1918: Commander-in-Chief of the White Guard: from January to May 1918
- 1918: Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Defence Forces: from December 1918 to July 1919
- 1931: Chairman of the Defence Council: from 1931 to 1939
- 1939: Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Defence Forces [bis]: from 1939 to 1946
Awards
Coat of Arms of Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim | |
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Armiger | Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim |
Motto | "Candida pro causa ense candido"[98]("With an honourable sword for an honourable cause") |
In the course of his lifetime, Mannerheim received 82 military and civilian decorations.[99]
Finland
- Grand Cross with Swords and Diamonds of the Order of the Cross of Liberty (1940; Grand Cross with Swords: 1918)
- Knight of the Mannerheim Cross, 1st and 2nd class, of the Order of the Cross of Liberty (1941)
- Order of the White Rose(1944)
- Grand Cross with Swords of the Order of the Lion of Finland (1944)
Russian Empire
- Order of St. Anna, 2nd degree (1906)
- Order of St. Stanislaus, 2nd class (1906)
- Order of St. Vladimir, 4th degree (1906)
- Gold Sword for Bravery (1906)
- Order of St. George, Knight 4th class (1914)
Sweden
- Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword (1918)
- Royal Order of the Seraphim(1919)
- Knight Grand Cross 1st Class of the Order of the Sword (1942)
Others
- Denmark: Knight of the Order of the Elephant (1919)
- France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (1939; Officer: 1910; Knight: 1902)
- Military Order of the Cross of the Eagle, 1st Class with Swords (1930)
- Estonia: Grand Cross of Order of the Estonian Red Cross (1933)
- German Empire: Iron Cross 1st and 2nd Class (1918)
- Kingdom of Hungary: Order of Merit of the Kingdom of Hungary, Grand Cross with the Holy Crown of St. Stephen (1941)
- Japan: Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers, Grand Cordon.[100]
- Nazi Germany: Golden Grand Cross of the Order of the German Eagle
- Nazi Germany: Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves (1944; Knight's Cross: 1942; Iron Cross 1st Class with 1939 bar: 1942)
- Kingdom of Romania: Order of Michael the Brave, 1st class (1941)
- United Kingdom: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire (GBE) (1938)
Works
- C.G. Mannerheim, Across Asia From West to East in 1906–1908. (1969) Anthropological Publications. Oosterhout N.B. – The Netherlands
- Across Asia : Vol. 1 – digital images
See also
- Adolf Ehrnrooth
- Hitler and Mannerheim recording
- Johan Laidoner
- List of wars involving Finland
- Mannerheim Cross
- Mannerheim Line
- Mannerheim Museum
- Mannerheim Park
- Mannerheimintie
- Marshal's Cabin
- The Marshal of Finland (film)
- Marskin ryyppy
- Vorschmack
References
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- ISBN 978-1-4051-9681-9.
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- ^ Pesonen, Mikko (13 March 2023). ""Adolf Ehrnrooth välitti Mannerheimin tahtoa haudan takaa" – Mannerheim on ainutlaatuinen kulttihahmo, jonka myyttiä lähipiiri rakensi määrätietoisesti". Yle (in Finnish). Retrieved 15 March 2023.
- ISBN 978-0-7538-2247-0.
- ^ Warner, Oliver (1967). Marshal Mannerheim and the Finns. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 154.
- ^ a b Binder, David (16 October 1983). "Finland's Heritage on parade". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
- ^ "Field Marshal Mannerheim, THE FATHER OF FINLAND". Western Mail. 15 November 1945. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
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- ^ "Mannerheimin suku onkin lähtöisin Saksasta" (in Finnish). MTV3. March 2007.
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- ^ Caldwell, Christopher (11 August 2017). "Start to Finnish". Washington Examiner. Retrieved 4 February 2020.
It was an 8,000-mile spying expedition. Russia was drawing up plans to invade China from the west—but failed to.
- ^ Clements (2009), pp. 100–103.
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- ^ a b c Trotter (2013), p. 29.
- ^ "Horse That Leaps Through Clouds – Retracing Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia". horsethatleaps.com.
- ^ a b "Horse That Leaps Through Clouds – Retracing Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia". horsethatleaps.com.
- ^ "Mannerheim tapasi Dalai-laman". Kaleva (in Finnish). Retrieved 7 September 2021.
- ^ Clements (2009), p. 155.
- ^ a b c Putensen, Dörte (2017). "Der größte Finne aller Zeiten?". Damals (in German). No. 5. pp. 72–76.
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- ^ "Краткие сведения об офицерах-Александрийцах: Великая война, Гражданская война, эмиграция. Часть 2-я (фамилии К – Р). – Статьи – Каталог статей – 5-й Гусарский Александрийский полк". blackhussars.ucoz.ru (in Russian).
- ^ Meri (1990), pp. 145–147.
- ^ Pallaste, Tuija (4 November 2017). "Mannerheimin tyttärien vaietut elämät: hauras Stasie eli nunnana ja levoton Sophy pakeni Pariisiin – lopulta kumpikin eli suhteessa naisen kanssa". Helsingin Sanomat (in Finnish). Retrieved 12 May 2020.
- ^ Meri (1990), pp. 148–149.
- ^ Screen (2000), p. 9.
- ^ Mannerheim (1953), p. 138.
- ^ Mannerheim (1953), p. 184.
- ^ a b c d Jägerskiöld (1986).
- ^ Meri (1990), p. 104.
- ISSN 0023-4281.
- ^ Mannerheim ei ollut koko valkoisen Suomen sankari – Turun Sanomat (in Finnish)
- ^ Virkkunen, Sakari (1992). Mannerheimin kääntöpuoli (in Finnish). Helsingissä: Otava.
- ^ a b Jägerskiöld (1983).
- ^ a b c Mannerheim-Museo.fi Archived 13 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "MANNERHEIM - Civilian - Foreign Legion".
- ^ Screen (2000), pp. 90–97.
- ^ Manninen, Tuomas (10 December 2020). "Tutkija: Mannerheim oli kolonialisti, kun ampui tiikereitä norsun päältä – tällaisia olivat Intian-matkat, joihin marsalkka osallistui "valkoisen metsästäjän roolissaan"". Ilta-Sanomat (in Finnish). Retrieved 4 June 2021.
- ^ a b c Pietiläinen, Jari (7 October 2022). "Omatkin halusivat tappaa Mannerheimin – Uutta tietoa: tällaisia murhayrityksiä aikalaiset juonivat marsalkan päänmenoksi". Nurmijärven Uutiset (in Finnish). Retrieved 8 October 2022.
- ^ Screen (2000), p. 104.
- ^ Screen (2000), p. 112.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Virkkunen, Sakari (1994) "Presidents of Finland II" (Suomen presidentit II), published in Finland
- ^ a b c d e Turtola (1994).
- ^ Mannerheimin murhayrityksen jälkinäytös käytiin Vallilassa (in Finnish)
- ^ a b Mikko Porvali : Murhayritys joka jäi tekemättä Archived 30 October 2023 at the Wayback Machine (in Finnish)
- ^ Murhahankkeet kenraali Mannerheimia ja sotaministeri Jalanderia vastaan, Aamulehti July 24, 1920, no. 167, p. 5. (in Finnish)
- ISBN 951-0-12416-8.
- ^ Mannerheim kuuli Hitlerin saapuvan syntymäpäiväjuhliin: – "Vad i helvete gör han här?" (in Finnish)
- ^ a b Uutuuskirja: Mannerheim innostui aluksi Hitleristä (in Finnish)
- ^ Jakobson (1999).
- ^ Mannerheim (1953), p. 456.
- ^ Helsingin Sanomat International Web-Edition Archived 19 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine – "Conversation secretly recorded in Finland helped a German actor prepare for Hitler role" Helsingin Sanomat / First published in print 15 September 2004 in Finnish.
- ^ Recording available Yle's web-archive
- ^ Mannerheim (1953), pp. 454–455.
- ^ a b c d e Zetterberg, Seppo et al., eds. (2003) "A Small Giant of Finnish History" (Suomen historian pikkujättiläinen)
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- ISBN 978-9004208940.
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- ISBN 978-1472815262.
- ^ Meri (1990), p. 397.
- ^ Hinkkanen, Tomi (4 June 2021). "Raihnainen Mannerheim teki salaperäisen matkan Portugaliin, rantaloman aikana kaikkosi riski sotasyyllisyystuomiosta". Suomen Kuvalehti (in Finnish). Retrieved 4 June 2021.
- ^ "Mannerheim Quits Office In Finland; Resigns In Finland". The New York Times. 5 March 1946. Retrieved 4 March 2024.
- ^ Screen (2000), p. 245.
- ^ Screen (2000), pp. 252.
- ^ "Historique". Lausanne University Hospital (in French). Retrieved 24 February 2018.
- ^ Cunningham, Marjo (5 November 2017). "Churchill kehui Mannerheimia: "Todellinen mies – vahva kuin kallionjärkäle"". Suomen Kuvalehti (in Finnish). Retrieved 19 December 2020.
- ^ "Marskin Maja" lodge – Häme Lake Uplands – Visit Loppi
- ^ Matti Klinge. "Mannerheim, Gustaf (1867–1951) President of Finland, Marshal of Finland". Translated by Roderick Fletcher. Biografiakeskus. Retrieved 12 September 2013.
- ^ "MANNERHEIM – Special Topics – Stamps". www.mannerheim.fi.
- ^ "8-cent Mannerheim". 12 December 2008. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
- ^ "50th Anniversary USA Champions of Liberty Mahatma Gandhi Stamp". 9 March 2011. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
- ^ Päämaja – Finna.fi (in Finnish)
- ^ Valtapeliä elokuussa 1940 (TV Movie 2001) – IMDb
- ^ "Gustaf Mannerheim The Marshal of Finland". mannerheim-museo.fi. Archived from the original on 19 January 2020. Retrieved 2 October 2017.
- ^ Mannerheim Internetprojekti, kunniamerkit valokuvineen (Finnish)
- ^ No. 77, Nousevan Auringon Ritarikunnan I luokka Paulovniakukkasin, Japani, mannerheim.fi.
Bibliography
- ISBN 978-1907822575.
- ISBN 3-506-72889-X.
- Jägerskiöld, Stig (1965). Nuori Mannerheim [Young Mannerheim] (in Finnish).
- Jägerskiöld, Stig (1983). Mannerheim 1867–1951. Helsinki: Otava Publications.
- ISBN 0-8166-1527-6.
- Koskikallio, Petteri. Asko Lehmuskallio, and Harry Halén. C. G. Mannerheim in Central Asia 1906–1908. Helsinki: National Board of Antiquities, 1999. ISBN 951-616-048-4.
- ISBN 9789511133698.
- Warner, Oliver (1967). Marshal Mannerheim and the Finns. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
- Warner, Oliver (July 1964). "Mannerheim, Marshal of Finland, 1867–1951". History Today. Vol. 14, no. 7. pp. 461–468.
- Mannerheim, Carl Gustaf Emil (1953). The Memoirs of Marshal Mannerheim. London: OCLC 12424452., primary source
- Meri, Veijo (1990). Suomen marsalkka C. G. Mannerheim (in Finnish).
- Pajunen, Jussi; Karjalainen, Mikko (2019). "Finnish Volunteer Battalion of the Waffen SS in 1941–1943 and Related Finnish studies" (PDF). Finno-German Yearbook of Political Economy. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
- ISBN 0-900966-22-X.
- ISBN 1-85065-573-1.
- ISBN 9781565126923.
- Martti Turtola . Turtola, Martti (1994). Risto Ryti: Elämä isänmaan puolesta [Risto Ryti: A Life for the Fatherland] (in Finnish). Helsinki: Otava.
- Tyni, Mikko (2022). Marsalkan muskettisoturit – Mannerheimin henkivartiointi ja turvallisuus 1918–1946 (in Finnish). ISBN 9789523823891.
- ISBN 978-951-858-111-9. Archived(PDF) from the original on 23 August 2021. Retrieved 13 October 2021.
External links
- "Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim". Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland. urn:NBN:fi:sls-4132-1416928956738.
- Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia including interactive Google maps, slide shows, videos and more
- C. G. E. Mannerheim in the history of Finland
- Mannerheim Museum
- Audio recordings of Hitler and Mannerheim's public and private talk (w/English text on YouTube), 4 June 1942
- (in Finnish and Swedish) [1][permanent dead link] Mannerheim's 1944 inauguration address
- On Mannerheim's role in defending Jews
- Mannerheim League for Child Welfare English website
- Newspaper clippings about Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
- C. G. E. Mannerheim in The Presidents of Finland