China–Mongolia relations
Mongolia |
China |
---|---|
Envoy | |
Ambassador Tuvshin Badral | Ambassador Shen Minjuan |
China–Mongolia relations (
Country comparison
Common name | China | Mongolia |
---|---|---|
Official name | People's Republic of China | Mongolia |
Coat of arms | ||
Flag | ||
Anthem | ||
Area | 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) | 1,564,116 km2 (603,909 sq mi) |
Population
|
1,418,669,490 | 3,227,863 |
Population density
|
145/km2 (375.5/sq mi) | 2.07/km2 (5.4/sq mi) |
Capital | Beijing | Ulaanbaatar (1,612,005) |
Largest city
|
Shanghai (26,317,104)
| |
Government | Unitary one-party socialist republic | Unitary semi-presidential republic |
First leader | Mao Zedong | Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat |
Current leaders | President Xi Jinping | President Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh |
Established | 21 September 1949 (People's Republic declared)
1 October 1949 (Proclamation of the People's Republic) 4 December 1982 (current constitution) |
13 February 1992 (current constitution) |
Official languages | Standard Chinese | Mongolian |
Currency | Yuan | Tögrög
|
GDP (nominal) | $14.216 trillion (2019) | $16.908 billion (2023) |
External debt (nominal) | $1.843 trillion (2018 Q4) | $25.2 billion (2017) |
GDP (PPP) | $27.438 trillion (2019) | $52.467 billion (2023) |
GDP (nominal) per capita | $10,153 (2019) | $4,814 (2023) |
GDP (PPP) per capita | $19,559 (2019) | $14,939 (2023) |
Human Development Index | 0.752 (high) | 0.739(high) |
Expatriates
|
~6,300,000 Mongolians living in China
|
~40,000 Chinese living in Mongolia
|
Foreign exchange reserves | 3,088,000 (millions of USD) | 3,697 (millions of USD) |
Military expenditures
|
$177.6 billion (1.9% of GDP) (2019) | $210 million (1.5% of GDP) (2019) |
Military personnel | 3,205,000 (0.23% of population)
|
170,000 (5.2% of population)
|
Army size | People's Liberation Army Ground Force (2019)
|
Mongolian Ground Force (2019)
|
Air force size | People's Liberation Army Air Force
|
Mongolian Air Force
|
Navy size | People's Liberation Army Navy (2019)
Total naval strength: 352 ships
|
No Navy |
Nuclear warheads
active/total |
0(?) / 280 (2019)[1] | 0 |
Background
The Han and Mongol (as well as their ancestors, the Proto-Mongols) peoples have been in contact with each other for millennia.
Throughout history, polities in the Central Plains and the Mongolian Plateau have had complicated relations. The Great Wall was constructed to ward off attacks by nomads from the north, notably during the Han and Ming dynasties. The Tang dynasty, following its defeat of the Xueyantuo, established the Protectorate General to Pacify the North in 647 to rule the Mongolian Plateau.
In 1271, the Mongols under
The Ming Great Wall was strengthened and the period was characterized by repeated Ming raids into Northern Yuan territory and vice versa. During the transition from Ming to Qing, the Northern Yuan monarch Ligdan Khan allied with the Ming against the Qing dynasty until Ligdan was defeated by Qing forces and Inner Mongolia was conquered by the Qing. In 1644, the Ming dynasty was overthrown by peasant rebels under Li Zicheng, who established the short-lived Shun dynasty which would soon be defeated by the Qing dynasty. During the Qing rule from 1691, Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia were incorporated into the empire.
After the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the Republic of China was established and Outer Mongolia declared its independence after more than 200 years of Qing rule. During this period, the Beiyang government of the Republic of China, as the successor to the Qing, claimed Outer Mongolia as Chinese territory. This claim was provided for in the Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor signed by the Empress Dowager Longyu on behalf of the six-year-old Xuantong Emperor: "[...] the continued territorial integrity of the lands of the five races, Manchu, Han, Mongol, Hui, and Tibetan into one great Republic of China" ([...] 仍合滿、漢、蒙、回、藏五族完全領土,為一大中華民國).[2][3][4] However, the Chinese government lacked any stable control over the region due to massive civil wars in the south and the rise of regional warlords in the Warlord Era. Consequently, Outer Mongolia sought Russian support to claim its independence. In 1919, Chinese general Xu Shuzheng advanced into Outer Mongolia and annulled its independence. In 1921, Chinese forces were driven out by White Russian forces led by Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg.[5] Some months later they were driven out by the Red Army of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Far Eastern Republic and pro-Soviet Mongolian forces. In 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed. With the onset of the Japanese invasion of China, little effort was given to reestablish Chinese control over Outer Mongolia.
Following the end of World War II, the Republic of China, led by the Kuomintang, was forced to formally accept Outer Mongolian independence under Soviet pressure. Recognition of Mongolian independence was stipulated in the Sino-Soviet agreement of August 14, 1945. The Chinese government officially recognized Mongolian independence in January 1946.[6] In 1949, the Communists won the Chinese Civil War and maintained the policy of recognizing Mongolia's independent status.
Cold War
The People's Republic of China established
Recent period
In the post-
Mongolia participates in the Belt and Road Initiative.[13] The BRI has been an important factor in the growing Mongolian view that China is an economic partner rather than a threat to its territorial integrity.[14]: 208 Mongolia cooperates in the development of the China-Mongolia-Russia Economic Corridor, one of the six major land corridors of the BRI.[15]: 39 In January 2024, Mongolia stated that it seeks to institute a summit where the three countries can further develop economic opportunities, including the corridor.[16]
In January 2024, Mongolian Prime Minister Luvsannamsrai Oyun-Erdene described relations between Mongolia and China as at their highest level and described the two countries as working towards a comprehensive strategic partnership.[16]
See also
- China–Mongolia border
- Mongolia-Taiwan relations
- Battle of Baitag Bogd
- Vostok 2018
- 2015 China Victory Day Parade
References
- ^ Kristensen, Hans; Norris, Robert (November 2018). "Status of World Nuclear Forces". Federation of American Scientists. Archived from the original on 18 June 2015. Retrieved 25 July 2019.
- ISBN 9780742578159.
- ISBN 9789629373214.
- ISBN 9789629372910.
- ISBN 978-5-87317-692-2
- ^ Sergey Radchenko, "The Truth About Mongolia’s Independence 70 Years Ago" The Diplomat, October 22, 2015
- ^ "China-Mongolia Boundary" (PDF). International Boundary Study (173). The Geographer, Bureau of Intelligence and Research: 2–6. August 1984. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-09-16. Retrieved 2008-06-16.
- ^ a b c "Mongolia-China relations". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 2017-08-01. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "Wilson Center Digital Archive".
- ISBN 978-1-5036-3415-2.
- ^ a b c ""Pan-Mongolism" and U.S.-China-Mongolia relations". Jamestown Foundation. 2005-06-29. Archived from the original on 2015-12-27. Retrieved 2013-04-07.
- ^ a b "China breathes new life into Mongolia". Asia Times. 2007-09-12. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2008-06-16.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Graceffo, Antonio (15 July 2020). "Mongolia and the Belt and Road Initiative: The Prospects for the China-Mongolia-Russia Economic Corridor". Jamestown Foundation. Retrieved 2020-07-16.
- ISBN 978-1-03-239508-1.
- ISBN 9780300266900.
- ^ a b "Between China and Russia, landlocked Mongolia eyes summit to enhance ties as geopolitical pressures mount". Yahoo Finance. 2024-01-24. Retrieved 2024-04-19.
Further reading
- Ginsburg, Tom. "Political reform in Mongolia: between Russia and China." Asian Survey 35.5 (1995): 459–471.
- Paine, Sarah CM. Imperial rivals: China, Russia, and their disputed frontier (ME Sharpe, 1996).
- Perdue, Peter C. "Military Mobilization in Seventeenth and Eighteenth-Century China, Russia, and Mongolia." Modern Asian Studies 30.4 (1996): 757–793.
- Perdue, Peter C. "Boundaries, maps, and movement: Chinese, Russian, and Mongolian empires in early modern Central Eurasia." International History Review 20.2 (1998): 263–286.
- Reeves, Jeffrey. "Rethinking weak state behavior: Mongolia’s foreign policy toward China." International Politics 51.2 (2014): 254–271.