History of clothing and textiles
The study of the history of clothing and textiles traces the development, use, and availability of
The wearing of clothing is exclusively a human characteristic and is a feature of most human societies. There has always been some disagreement among scientists on when humans began wearing clothes, but newer studies from
Textile history is almost as old as human civilization, and as time has passed, the history of textiles has been more enriched. Silk weaving was introduced to India c. 400 AD, whereas cotton spinning dates back to 3000 BC in India.[2] And a recent archaeological excavation from Neolithic Mehrgarh, Pakistan revealed in the article Analysis of Mineralized Fibres from a Copper Bead, that the cotton fibers were being used as early as the 7th millennium BC.[3]
Textiles can be
Sources available for the study of clothing and textiles include material remains discovered via archaeology; representation of textiles and their manufacture in art; and documents concerning the manufacture, acquisition, use, and trade of fabrics, tools, and finished garments. Scholarship of textile history, especially its earlier stages, is part of material culture studies.
Prehistoric development
million years ago ) |
The development of textile and clothing in prehistory has been the subject of a number of scholarly studies since the late 20th century.[6][7] These sources have helped to provide a coherent history of these prehistoric developments. Nonetheless, scientists have never agreed on when humans began wearing clothes and the estimates suggested by various experts have ranged greatly, from 40,000 to as many as 3 million years ago.
Recent studies by Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking—anthropologists at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology—have attempted to constrain the most recent date of the introduction of clothing with an indirect method relying on lice. The rationale for this method of dating stems from the fact that the human body louse (P. humanus corporus) cannot live outside of clothing, dying after only a few hours without shelter. This strongly implies that the date of the body louse's speciation from its parent, the human louse (Pediculus humanus), can have taken place no earlier than the earliest human adoption of clothing. This date, at which the body louse diverged from both its parent species and its sibling subspecies, the head louse (P. humanus capitus), can be determined by the number of mutations each has developed during the intervening time. Such mutations occur at a known rate and the date of last-common-ancestor for two species can therefore be estimated from the difference in number of their respective mutations. These studies have produced dates ranging from 40,000 to 170,000 years ago, with a 2003 study speculating a date of 107,000 years ago, and a 2011 study confirming the most likely time of 170,000 ya[8]
Kittler, Kayser and Stoneking suggest that the invention of clothing may have coincided with the northward migration of modern
Dating with direct archeological evidence produces dates consistent with those hinted at by lice. In September 2021, scientists reported evidence of clothes being made from 90,000 to 120,000 years ago based on findings in deposits in Morocco.[11][12] However, despite these archaeological indications and genetic evidence, there is no single estimate that is widely accepted.[13][14][15][16]
Cave paintings and pictorial evidence suggest the existence of dress in the Paleolithic period, around 30,000 years ago, though these were skin drapes. Textile clothing came to notice around 27,000 years ago, while actual textile fragments from 7000 B.C. have been discovered by archeologists.[17]: 1 [18]
Early adoption of apparel
The earliest dyed
The 25,000-year-old
Archaeologists have discovered artifacts from the same period that appear to have been used in the textile arts: net gauges from 5000 B.C., spindle needles, and weaving sticks.[citation needed]
Ancient textiles and clothing
Knowledge of ancient textiles and clothing has expanded in the recent past due to modern technological developments.
Looms
A loom is a device or machine used for weaving clothes.[24] From prehistory through the early Middle Ages, for most of Europe, the Near East and North Africa, two main types of loom dominated textile production. These are the warp-weighted loom and the two-beam loom. The length of the beam determined the width of the cloth woven upon the loom, and could be as wide as 2–3 meters.[25] Early woven clothing was often made of full loom widths draped, tied, or pinned in place.
Preservation
Knowledge of cultures varies greatly with the climatic conditions to which archeological deposits are exposed; the Middle East, South America and the arid fringes of China have provided many very early samples in good condition, along with textile impressions in clay, and graphic portrayals. In northern
Textile trade in the ancient world
Throughout the Neolithic and Bronze Ages, the fertile grounds of the Eurasian Steppe provided a setting for a network of nomadic communities to develop and interact. The Steppe Route has always connected regions of the Asian continent with trade and transmission of culture, including clothing.
Around 114 B.C., the
Ancient Near East
The earliest known woven textiles of the
In Mesopotamia, the clothing of a regular Sumerian was very simple, especially in summer. In the winter, clothes were made of sheep fur. Even wealthy men were depicted with naked torsos, wearing only short skirts, known as kaunakes, while women wore long dresses to their ankles. The king wore a tunic, and a coat that reached to his knees, with a belt in the middle. Over time, the development of the craft of wool weaving in Mesopotamia led to a great variety in clothing. Thus, towards the end of the 3rd millennium BC and later men wore tunics with short sleeves and even over the knees, with a belt (over which the rich wore a wool cloak). Women's dresses featured more varied designs: with or without sleeves, narrow or wide, usually long and without highlighting the body[31]
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Sumerian Statues of worshippers (males and females); 2800-2400 BC (National Museum of Iraq (Baghdad)
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The Statue of Ebih-Il; c. 2400 BCE; gypsum, schist, shells and lapis lazuli; height: 52.5 cm; Louvre (Paris)
Ancient India
Excavations of Indus Valley civilization sites to date have yielded a few twisted cotton threads, in the context of a connecting cord for a bead necklace.[33] However, terracotta figurines uncovered at Mehrgarh show a male figure wearing what is commonly interpreted to be a turban. A figurine, from the site of Mohenjo-daro, and labeled the "Priest King," depicts the wearing of a shawl with floral patterns. So far, this is the only sculpture from the Indus Valley to show clothing in such explicit detail. Other sculptures of Dancing Girls, excavated from Mohenjo-daro, only show the wearing of bangles and other jewelry.[34] However, the figurines do not provide any concrete proof to legitimize the history of clothing in the Harappan times.
Harappans may have used natural colors to dye their fabric. Research shows that the cultivation of indigo plants (genus: Indigofera) was prevalent.
Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, mentions Indian cotton in the 5th century BCE as "a wool exceeding in beauty and goodness that of sheep." When Alexander the Great invaded India, in 327 BCE, his troops started wearing cotton clothes that were more comfortable than their previous woolen ones.[35] Strabo, another Greek historian, mentioned the vividness of Indian fabrics, and Arrian told of Indian–Arab trade of cotton fabrics in 130 CE.[36]
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Statue of "Priest King" wearing a robe; 2400–1900 BCE; low firedsteatite; National Museum of Pakistan (Karachi)
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The (Japan)
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Ancient form ofNational Museum (New Delhi)
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Shakuntala, wife of Dushyanta and the mother of Emperor Bharata, from Kalidasa's play Abhijñānaśākuntala, wearing a sari, painting by Raja Ravi Varma, c. 1870.
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Painting on wooden panel discovered by Aurel Stein in Dandan Oilik, depicting the legend of the princess who hid silk worm eggs in her headdress to smuggle them out of China to the Kingdom of Khotan; 7th to 8th century; British Museum (London)
Ancient Egypt
Evidence exists for production of linen cloth in
Ancient Egyptian spinning techniques included the drop spindle, hand-to-hand spinning, and rolling on the thigh; yarn was also spliced.[37] A horizontal ground loom was used prior to the New Kingdom, when a vertical two-beam loom was introduced, probably from Asia.
Linen bandages were used in the
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Pair of sandals; 1390–1352 BC; grass, reed and papyrus; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
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Illustration from the book Ancient Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian costumes and decorations
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Illustration of a Goddess from Ancient Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian costumes and decorations
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Statue ofSobekhotep VI, who wears the Egyptian male skirt, the shendyt, from Neues Museum(Berlin, Germany)
Ancient China
The earliest evidence of silk production in China was found at the sites of
Under the Shang Dynasty, Han Chinese clothing or Hanfu consisted of a yi, a narrow-cuffed, knee-length tunic tied with a sash, and a narrow, ankle-length skirt, called shang, worn with a bixi, a length of fabric that reached the knees. Clothing of the elite was made of silk in vivid primary colours.
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Painting of Emperor Yao wearing a shenyi
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The Yellow Emperor wearing a mianguan
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Woven silk textile from theHunan province, China), from the 2nd century BC
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The mianfu of Emperor Wu of Jin dynasty, 7th-century painting by court artist Yan Liben
Ancient Thailand
The earliest evidence of spinning in Thailand can be found at the archaeological site of Tha Kae located in Central Thailand. Tha Kae was inhabited during the end of the first millennium BC to the late first millennium AD. Here, archaeologists discovered 90 fragments of a spindle whorl dated from 3rd century BC to 3rd century AD. And the shape of these finds indicate the connections with south China and India.[42]
Ancient South America
The earliest textiles found in South America date back to an estimated 12,000 years ago. These woven textiles were excavated from the Guitarrero Cave in Peru. It is assumed that they were being used by settlers for a variety of creations like baskets and wall coverings. Contrary to the assumptions that these early raids in the Andes mountains were executed exclusively by men, Edward A. Jolie's research indicates that women must have been among these settlers as well. His reason for believing so is the general cultural connection of textile weaving being produced by women.[43]
Ancient Japan
The earliest evidence of weaving in Japan is associated with the Jōmon period. This culture is defined by pottery decorated with cord patterns. In a shell mound in the Miyagi Prefecture, dating back about 5,500, some cloth fragments made from bark fibers were discovered.[44] Hemp fibers were also discovered in the Torihama shell mound, Fukui Prefecture, dating back to the Jōmon period, suggesting that these plants could also have been used for clothing. Some pottery pattern imprints depict also fine mat designs, proving their weaving techniques. The patterns on the Jōmon pottery show people wearing short upper garments, close-fitting trousers, funnel-sleeves, and rope-like belts. The depictions also show clothing with patterns that are embroidered or painted arched designs, though it is not apparent whether this indicates what the clothes look like or whether that simply happens to be the style of representation used. The pottery also shows no distinction between male and female garments. This may have been true because during that time period clothing was more for decoration than social distinction, but it might also just be because of the representation on the pottery rather than how people actually dressed at the time. Since bone needles were also found, it is assumed that they wore dresses that were sewn together.[45]
Next was the Yayoi period, during which rice cultivation was developed. This led to a shift from hunter-gatherer communities to agrarian societies which had a large impact on clothing. According to Chinese literature from that time period, clothing more appropriate to agriculture began to be worn. For example, an unsewn length of fabric wrapped around the body, or a poncho-type garment with a head-hole cut into it. This same literature also indicates that pink or scarlet makeup was worn but also that mannerisms between people of all ages and genders were not very different. However, this is debatable as there were probably cultural prejudices in the Chinese document. There is a common Japanese belief that the Yayoi time period was quite utopian before Chinese influence began to promote the use of clothing to indicate age and gender.
From 300 to 550 AD was the Yamato period, and here much of the clothing style can be derived from the artifacts of the time. The tomb statues (haniwa) especially tell us that the clothing style changed from the ones according to the Chinese accounts from the previous age. The statues are usually wearing a two piece outfit that has an upper piece with a front opening and close-cut sleeves with loose trousers for men and a pleated skirt for women. Silk farming had been introduced by the Chinese by this time period but due to silk's cost it would only be used by people of certain classes or ranks.
The following periods were the Asuka (550 to 646 AD) and Nara (646 to 794 AD) when Japan developed a more unified government and began to use Chinese laws and social rankings. These new laws required people to wear different styles and colors to indicate social status. Clothing became longer and wider in general and sewing methods were more advanced.[46]
Classical Period of the Philippines
The classical Filipino clothing varied according to cost and current fashions and so indicated social standing. The basic garments were the
Untailored clothes, however had no particular names. Pandong, a lady's
The usual male headdress was the pudong, a turban, though in Panay both men and women also wore a head cloth or bandana called saplung. Commoners wore pudong of rough abaca cloth wrapped around only a few turns so that it was more of a headband than a turban and was therefore called pudong-pudong—as the crowns and diadems on Christian images were later called. A red pudong was called magalong, and was the insignia of braves who had killed an enemy. The most prestigious kind of pudong, limited to the most valiant, was, like their G-strings, made of pinayusan, a gauze-thin abaca of fibers selected for their whiteness, tie-dyed a deep scarlet in patterns as fine as embroidery, and burnished to a silky sheen. Such pudong were lengthened with each additional feat of valor: real heroes therefore let one end hang loose with affected carelessness. Women generally wore a kerchief, called tubatub if it was pulled tight over the whole head; but they also had a broad-brimmed hat called sayap or tarindak, woven of sago-palm leaves. Some were evidently signs of rank: when Humabon's queen went to hear mass during Magellan's visit, she was preceded by three girls carrying one of her
Classical Greece
Fabric in Ancient Greece was woven on a warp-weighted loom. The first extant image of weaving in western art is from a terracotta lekythos in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY. The vase, c. 550-530 B.C.E., depicts two women weaving at an upright loom. The warp threads, which run vertically to a bar at the top, are tied together with weights at the bottom, which hold them taut. The woman on the right runs the shuttle containing the weaving thread across the middle of the warp. The woman on the left uses a beater to consolidate the already-woven threads.[48]
Dress in classical antiquity favored wide, unsewn lengths of fabric, pinned and draped to the body in various ways.
The toga of ancient Rome was also an unsewn length of wool cloth, worn by male citizens draped around the body in various fashions, over a simple tunic. Early tunics were two simple rectangles joined at the shoulders and sides; later tunics had sewn sleeves. Women wore the draped stola or an ankle-length tunic, with a shawl-like palla as an outer garment. Wool was the preferred fabric, although linen, hemp, and small amounts of expensive imported silk and cotton were also worn.
Iron Age Europe
The
Medieval clothing and textiles
The history of
Byzantium
The
Leggings and hose were often worn, but are not prominent in depictions of the wealthy; they were associated with barbarians, whether European or Persian.[53]
Early medieval Europe
European dress changed gradually in the years 400 to 1100. People in many countries dressed differently depending on whether they identified with the old Romanised population, or the new
The elite imported silk cloth from the Byzantine, and later Muslim, worlds, and also probably cotton. They also could afford bleached linen and dyed and simply patterned wool woven in Europe itself. But embroidered decoration was probably very widespread, though not usually detectable in art. Lower classes wore local or homespun wool, often undyed, trimmed with bands of decoration, variously embroidery, tablet-woven bands, or colorful borders woven into the fabric in the loom.[55][56]
High Middle Ages and the rise of fashion
Clothing in 12th and 13th century Europe remained very simple for both men and women, and quite uniform across the subcontinent. The traditional combination of short tunic with hose for working-class men and long tunic with overdress for women and upper-class men remained the norm. Most clothing, especially outside the wealthier classes, remained little changed from three or four centuries earlier.[57]
The 13th century saw great progress in the dyeing and working of wool, which was by far the most important material for outerwear. Linen was increasingly used for clothing that was directly in contact with the skin. Unlike wool, linen could be laundered and bleached in the sun. Cotton, imported raw from Egypt and elsewhere, was used for padding and quilting, and cloths such as buckram and fustian.
Cultural and costume historians agree that the mid-14th century marks the emergence of recognizable "fashion" in Europe.
In this period, the draped garments and straight seams of previous centuries were replaced by curved seams and the beginnings of tailoring, which allowed clothing to more closely fit the human form, as did the use of lacing and
Renaissance and early modern period
Renaissance Europe
Wool remained the most popular fabric for all classes, followed by linen and hemp.[59] Wool fabrics were available in a wide range of qualities, from rough undyed cloth to fine, dense broadcloth with a velvety nap; high-value broadcloth was a backbone of the English economy and was exported throughout Europe.[66] Wool fabrics were dyed in rich colours, notably reds, greens, golds, and blues.[59]
Silk-weaving was well established around the Mediterranean by the beginning of the 15th century, and figured silks, often silk
As prosperity grew in the 15th century, the urban middle classes, including skilled workers, began to wear more complex clothes that followed, at a distance, the fashions set by the elites. National variations in clothing increased over the century.[68]
Early Modern Europe
By the first half of the 16th century, the clothing of the Low Countries, German states, and Scandinavia had developed in a different direction than that of England, France, and Italy, although all absorbed the sobering and formal influence of Spanish dress after the mid-1520s.[69]
Elaborate slashing was popular, especially in Germany. Black was increasingly worn for the most formal occasions. Bobbin lace arose from passementerie in the mid-16th century, probably in Flanders.[70] This century also saw the rise of the ruff, which grew from a mere ruffle at the neckline of the shirt or chemise to immense cartwheel shapes. At their most extravagant, ruffs required wire supports.
By the turn of the 17th century, a sharp distinction could be seen between the sober fashions favored by Protestants in England and the Netherlands, which still showed heavy Spanish influence, and the light, revealing fashions of the French and Italian courts.
The great flowering of
According to Wolf D. Fuhrig, "By the second half of the 17th century, Silesia had become an important economic pillar of the Habsburg monarchy, largely on the strength of its textile industry."[73]
Mughal India
Bengal accounted for more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks imported by the Dutch from Asia,[79] Bengali silk and cotton textiles were exported in large quantities to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan,[80] and Bengali muslin textiles from Dhaka were sold in Central Asia, where they were known as "daka" textiles.[78] Indian textiles dominated the Indian Ocean trade for centuries, were sold in the Atlantic Ocean trade, and had a 38% share of the West African trade in the early 18th century, while Indian calicos were major force in Europe, and Indian textiles accounted for 20% of total English trade with Southern Europe in the early 18th century.[75]
In
Emphasis was placed on the adornment[81] of women. Even though the purdah was made compulsory for the Mughal women, we see that this did not stop themselves from experimenting in style and attire. Abul Fazal mentions that there were sixteen components that adorned a woman. These not only included clothing but also other aspects like that of oiling the body and iqtar. Mughal women wore long loose jamas with full sleeves and in winters it was accompanied by a Qaba or a Kashmir shawl used as a coat. Women were very fond of their perfumes and scents. Jewellery in the Mughal tradition signified not only religious values but also style statements.
Pre-Colonial North America
Across North America, native people constructed clothing using natural fibers such as cotton and agave as well as leather skins from animals such as deer or beavers. When traders and colonists came from Europe, they brought with them sheep and travelers highly valued the beaver pelts in particular for their warmth. Beaver pelt trade was one of the first commercial endeavors of colonial North America and a cause of the Beaver Wars.
Enlightenment and the Colonial period
During the 18th century, distinction was made between full dress worn at Court and for formal occasions, and undress or everyday, daytime clothes. As the decades progressed, fewer and fewer occasions called for full dress which had all but disappeared by the end of the century. Full dress followed the styles of the French court, where rich silks and elaborate embroidery reigned. Men continued to wear the
Women's silhouettes featured small, domed hoops in the 1730s and early 1740s, which were displaced for formal court wear by side hoops or panniers which later widened to as much as three feet to either side at the court of Marie Antoinette. Fashion reached heights of fantasy and abundant ornamentation, before new enthusiasms for outdoor sports and country pursuits and a long-simmering movement toward simplicity and democratization of dress under the influence of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the American Revolution led to an entirely new mode and the triumph of British woollen tailoring following the French Revolution.
For women's dresses, Indian cottons, especially printed chintzes, were imported to Europe in large numbers, and towards the end of the period simple white muslin dresses were in fashion.
Industrial revolution
During the
Sewing machines emerged in the 19th century[82] streamlining clothing production.
Textiles were not only made in factories. Before this, they were made in local and national markets. Dramatic change in transportation throughout the nation is one source that encouraged the use of factories. New advances such as steamboats, canals, and railroads lowered shipping costs which caused people to buy cheap goods that were produced in other places instead of more expensive goods that were produced locally. Between 1810 and 1840, the development of a national market prompted manufacturing which tripled the output's worth. This increase in production created a change in industrial methods, such as the use of factories instead of hand made woven materials that families usually made.[83]
The vast majority of the people who worked in the factories were women.[where?] Women went to work in textile factories for a number of reasons. Some women left home to live on their own because of crowding at home; or to save for future marriage portions. The work enabled them to see more of the world, to earn something in anticipation of marriage, and to ease the crowding within the home. They also did it to make money for family back home. The money they sent home was to help out with the trouble some of the farmers were having. They also worked in the millhouses because they could gain a sense of independence and growth as a personal goal.[84]
20th-century developments
The 20th century is marked by new applications for textiles as well as inventions in synthetic fibers and computerized manufacturing control systems.
Unions
In the early 20th century, workers in the clothing and textile industries became unionized in the United States.
Education
In the 20th century, the industry had expanded to such a degree that such educational institutions as UC Davis established a Division of Textiles and Clothing,
Even high school libraries have collections on the history of clothing and textiles.[89]
New applications
The changing lifestyles, activities, and demands of the 20th century favored clothing producers who could more effectively make their products have desired properties, such as increased strength, elasticity, or durability. These properties may be implemented through mechanical solutions such as different weaving and knitting patterns, by modifications to the fibers, or by finishing (textiles) of the textiles. Since the 1960s, it has been possible to finish textiles to resist stains, flames, wrinkles, and microbial life. Advancement in dye technology allowed for coloring of previously difficult-to-dye natural fibers and synthetic fibers.[90]
Synthetic fibers
Following the invention of plastics by petroleum and chemical corporations, fibers could now be made synthetically. Advancements in fiber spinning actuators and control systems allow control over fiber diameter and shape, so synthetic fiber may be engineered with more precision than natural fibers. Fibers invented between 1930 and 1970 include nylon, PTFE, polyester, Spandex, and Kevlar. Clothing producers soon adopted synthetic fibers, often using blends of different fibers for optimized properties.[90] Synthetic fibers can be knit and woven similarly to natural fibers. Synthetic fibers are made by humans through chemical synthesis as opposed to natural fibers.
Automation and numeric control
The early 20th century continued the advances of the Industrial Revolution. In The procedural loops required for mechanized textile knitting and weaving already used logic were encoded in punch-cards and tapes. Since the machines were already computers, the invention of small-scale electronics and microcontrollers did not immediately change the possible functions of these machines. In the 1960s, existing machines became outfitted with computerized numeric control (CNC) systems, enabling more accurate and efficient actuation. In 1983, Bonas Machine Company Ltd. presented the first computer-controlled,
21st century issues
In the 2010s, the global textile industry has come under fire for unsustainable practices. The textile industry is shown to have a 'negative environmental impact at most stages in the production process.[93]
Global trade of secondhand clothing shows promise for reducing landfill use, however international relations and challenges to textile recycling keep the market small compared to total clothing use.[94][95] Over consumption and waste generation in global fashion culture has led brands and retailers worldwide to embrace textile recycling, which has become a key focus of worldwide sustainability efforts.[96] Brands increasingly advertise products made from recycled materials in according with shifting consumer expectations.[97] From 2010, investments in textile recycling companies have boomed to scale recycling solutions to the global demand,[98] with Inditex backing textile-to-textile recycling company Circ in July 2022[99] or Goldman Sachs leading an investment in mechanically recycled cotton company Recover Textile Systems.[100]
Advancements in textile treatment, coating, and dyes have unclear effects in human health, and textile contact dermatitis is increasing in prevalence among textile workers, and regular people.[101][102]
Scholars have identified an increase in the rate at which western consumers purchase new clothing, as well as a decrease in the lifespan of clothing. Fast fashion has been suggested to contribute to increased levels of textile waste.[103]
The worldwide market for textiles and apparel exports in 2013 according to United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database stood at $772 billion.[104]
In 2016, the largest apparel exporting nations were China ($161 billion), Bangladesh ($28 billion), Vietnam ($25 billion), India ($18 billion), Hong Kong ($16 billion), Turkey ($15 billion) and Indonesia ($7 billion).[105]
See also
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Bibliography
- Boucher, François. ISBN 0-8109-1693-2
- Jenkins, D. T. (2003). The Cambridge history of western textiles. Cambridge, U.K.; New York: Cambridge University Press. OCLC 48475172.
- Payne, Blanche; Winakor, Geitel; Farrell-Beck Jane (1992) The History of Costume, from the Ancient Mesopotamia to the Twentieth Century, 2nd Edn, HarperCollins ISBN 0-06-047141-7
- Piponnier, Françoise, and Perrine Mane; Dress in the Middle Ages; Yale UP; 1997; ISBN 0-300-06906-5
Further reading
- Ashelford, Jane: The Art of Dress: Clothing and Society 1500–1914, Abrams, 1996. ISBN 0-8109-6317-5
- ISBN 0-89676-083-9)
- Barber, Elizabeth Jane Wayland. Women's work: the first 20,000 years: women, cloth, and society in early times (WW Norton, 1994).
- Braudel, Fernand, Civilization and Capitalism, 15th–18th centuries, Vol 1: The Structures of Everyday Life, William Collins & Sons, London 1981
- OCLC 21227430.
- Conrad, James L. "' Drive That Branch': Samuel Slater, the Power Loom, and the Writing of America's Textile History." Technology and culture 36.1 (1995): 1-28. online
- Good, Irene. "Archaeological textiles: a review of current research." Annual Review of Anthropology (2001): 209–226. online[permanent dead link]
- Gordenker, Emilie E.S.: Van Dyck and the Representation of Dress in Seventeenth-Century Portraiture (Brepols, 2001), ISBN 2-503-50880-4
- Hodges, Nancy, et al. "Women and apparel entrepreneurship: An exploration of small business challenges and strategies in three countries." International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship (2015) online.
- Kõhler, Carl: A History of Costume, Dover Publications reprint, 1963, from 1928 Harrap translation from the German, ISBN 0-486-21030-8
- Kortsch, Christine Bayles. Dress Culture in Late Victorian Women's Fiction: Literacy, Textiles, and Activism (2009) excerpt
- Lee, John S.: The Medieval Clothier, Woodbridge, Boydell, 2018, ISBN 978-1-78327-317-1
- Lee, Mireille M. Body, dress, and identity in ancient Greece (Cambridge University Press, 2015).
- Lefébure, Ernest: Embroidery and Lace: Their Manufacture and History from the Remotest Antiquity to the Present Day, London, H. Grevel and Co., 1888, ed. by Alan S. Cole, at Online Books , retrieved 14 October 2007
- Netherton, Robin, and ISBN 1-84383-123-6
- Olson, Kelly. Dress and the Roman woman: self-presentation and society (Routledge, 2012), in ancient Rome.
- Payne, Blanche: History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century, Harper & Row, 1965. ASIN B0006BMNFS
- Postrel, Virginia. The Fabric of Civilization: How Textiles Made the World (Bassic Books, 2020) extract
- Rosen, Ellen. Making sweatshops: The globalization of the US apparel industry (Univ of California Press, 2002).
- Tortora, Phyllis G. Dress, fashion and technology: From prehistory to the present (Bloomsbury, 2015).
- Watt, James C.Y.; Wardwell, Anne E. (1997). When silk was gold: Central Asian and Chinese textiles. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-825-6.
- Welters, Linda, and Abby Lillethun. Fashion history: A global view (Bloomsbury, 2018).
- Yafa, Stephen. Cotton: The biography of a revolutionary fiber (Penguin, 2006). excerpt
Primary sources
- Sylvester, Louise M., Mark C. Chambers and Gale R. Owen-Crocker, editors, Medieval Dress and Textiles in Britain: A Multilingual Sourcebook, Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK, and Rochester, NY, ISBN 978-1-84383-932-3
External links
- Textile production in Europe, 1600–1800, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
- Spindle, Loom, and Needle – History of the Textile Industry
- Australian Museum of Clothing And Textiles Inc. at the Wayback Machine (archived 27 October 2009) – Why have a Museum of Clothing and Textiles?
- Linking Anthropology and History in Textiles and Clothing Research: The Ethnohistorical Method by Rachel K. Pannabecker – from Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Vol. 8, No. 3, 14–18 (1990)
- The drafting history of the Agreement on Textiles and Clothing
- American Women's History: A Research Guide Archived 15 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine Clothing and Fashion
- All Sewn Up: Millinery, Dressmaking, Clothing and Costume
- Gallery of English Medieval Clothing from 1906 by Dion Clayton Calthrop