Hasankeyf
Hasankeyf | |
---|---|
Country | Turkey |
Province | Batman |
District | Hasankeyf |
Established | 18th century BC? |
Government | |
• Mayor | Abdülvahap Küsen (AKP) |
Population (2021)[1] | 4,329 |
Time zone | UTC+3 (TRT) |
Hasankeyf[a] is a town located along the Tigris, in the Hasankeyf District, Batman Province, Turkey. It was declared a natural conservation area by Turkey in 1981.[4]
Despite local and international objections, the city and its archaeological sites have been flooded as part of the Ilısu Dam project. By 1 April 2020, water levels reached an elevation of 498.2m, covering the whole town.[5]
The town had a population of 4,329 in 2021.[1]
Toponymy
Hasankeyf was an ancient settlement that has borne many names from a variety of cultures during its history. The variety of these names is compounded by the many ways that non-Latin alphabets such as Syriac and Arabic can be transliterated. Underlying these many names is much continuity between cultures in the basic identification of the site.
The city of Ilānṣurā mentioned in the
Following the Arab conquest of 640, the town became known under the Arabic name حصن كيفا (Ḥiṣn Kayfa). "Hisn" means "fortress" in Arabic, so the name overall means "rock fortress". Western reports about the town before the 20th century refer to it by various names that are transliterated from Arabic or Ottoman Turkish. The most popular of these were Hisn Kaifa and Hisn Kayfa, although a wide variety of others are used including Ḥiṣn Kaifā, Ḥiṣn Kayfā, Ḥiṣn Kayfâ, Ḥiṣn Kīfā, Ḥiṣn Kîfâ, Hisn Kayf, Husn Kayfa, Hassan-Keyf, Hosnkeif and Husunkeïf. Two early Armenian historians list additional names for the town: Harsenkev (Armenian: Հարսնքվ) is recorded by Matthew of Edessa (Mesrob Eretz) and Kentzy is recorded by P. Lucas Ingigian.[7]
As part of
History
Middle Bronze Age (Ilānṣurā?)
During the
Late Bronze Age
By the 14th century BC, the Hasankeyf area was within the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni. Between the 9th and 7th centuries BC it was part of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and by the mid-6th century it was part of the Median empire.
Roman and Byzantine empires
In
For a time the town became the capital of the Roman province of
The balance of power in the region shifted significantly in 363. Following the death of the emperor
Recording the situation at the end of the fourth century, the .
Rescue excavations from 2005 to 2008 uncovered evidence of the base of a Roman gateway to the upper city, a row of shops from the late Roman period, and Roman floor and wall mosaics.[14][15][16]
By the sixth century, the Persians were mounting frequent attacks on the eastern border of the Byzantine empire.[17] As a consequence, the Byzantines built a great number of military installations in the region during the early and mid-sixth century.[17] Despite this the Persians seized the opportunity of a Byzantine civil war to attack the eastern provinces, in what became the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628. Early in the conflict they occupied Kiphas along with Mardin, Dara and probably the rest of the Tur Abdin, and these were held for most of the rest of the war.[18] The treaty that concluded the war restored Kiphas to Byzantine control, but the gain was to prove short-lived. Writing between about 600 and 610, the Byzantine geographer George of Cyprus mentions Cepha as a fortress in the Mesopotamia section of his Descriptio Orbis Romani.[12][13]
Muslim conquest
By the 630s, Muslim Arab forces had conquered large parts of Mesopotamia, Syria and Iran. Kiphas appears most likely to have been captured during the
Over the subsequent five centuries, the town was ruled Arab dynasties under the name Hisn Kayfa, first by the
Fatima, the Kurdish mother of the Hamdanid ruler Abu Taghlib,[22] took control of the town in c. 900 A.D.[23]
Artuqid period (1102–1232)
In the 11th century,
In 1104,
Control of trade along the Diyarbakır–Mosul road paralleling the Tigris, and north–south between Lake Van and the Euphrates generated prosperity for the Artuqids and ensured their power in the region.[20] Consequently, the existence of a reliable river crossing for goods and people was a priority, and the Artuqids built a bridge across the Tigris at some time between 1147 and 1172.
This period was something of a golden age for Hisn Kayfa, with the Artuqids and their successors, the
In April 1204, the Artuqid emir
By 1229/1230, al-Salih's successor,
By 1232, control of Amida and Hisn Kayfa had passed to the Artuqid prince
Ayyubids and Mongols (1232–1462)
Once the citadel fell to the Ayyubid forces, al-Kamil immediately installed his 27-year-old son, as-Salih Ayyub, as governor of both Amida and Hisn Kayfa, beginning the period of Ayyubid rule over the Diyar Bakr.[31][32]
Ayyubid rule of Hisn Kayfa was insecure almost from the start. During 1235, the
Only five years after Hisn Kayfa was captured by the Ayyubids, it had already become a pawn in the dynasty's power struggles. By AH 634 (1236/1237) al-Ashraf had become resentful of his brother al-Kamil's ill-concealed ambition. al-Ashraf recruited the rulers of Aleppo and Homs to his faction and sent ambassadors to the court of Rum Seljuk sultan 'Alā ad-Dīn Kayqubād to propose an alliance.[34] When they arrived at the Seljuk court they discovered that Kayqubād had died on 4 Shawwal 634/31 May 1237, and they now had to deal with his son, Ghiyath ad-Din Kaykhusrau II.[34] The Middle East historian R. Stephen Humphreys speculates that Kaykhusrau was offered control of Amida and Hisn Kayfa in return for joining the alliance.[34] Although al-Ashraf had assembled a formidable alliance against his brother, he was unable to use this to engage al-Kamil's forces as he was already ill by the time of the negotiations with the Seljuks, and he died on 4 Muharram 635/28 August 1237.[35] His rival, al-Kamil, died on 6 March 1238, and the Ayyubid domain was thrown into fresh turmoil.
Al-Kamil had bequeathed control of the Jazira to as-Salih Ayyub, who had been emir of Hisn Kayfa, and named his younger brother al-Adil as his heir in Egypt. In his new role as sultan, as-Salih Ayyub installed his own young son, al-Muazzam Turanshah as prince of Hisn Kayfa in AH 636 (1238/1239), with one of his closest advisers, Husam al-Din, as Turanshah's atabeg.[36] As-Salih Ayyub, meanwhile, gathered an army to take Damascus and challenge al-Adil's rule over Egypt. By June 1240 as-Salih Ayyub's soldiers had captured al-Adil and as-Salih became paramount ruler of the Ayyubid possessions.
It appears that as-Salih's son al-Muazzam Turanshah remained prince of Hisn Kayfa from 1238 until 1249. When as-Salih Ayyub died suddenly on 12 November 1249, Turanshah had to be recalled in a hurry to take control of the Ayyubid empire. As-Salih's widow, Shajar al-Durr, dispatched a special embassy to bring her son to Egypt. Turanshah had left Hisn Kayfa with this party by 18 December 1249, heading for Anah and Damascus.[37]
In 1255, the great khan
On 23 Rabiʿ II 658/7 April 1260,
By AH 665 (1266/1267) the Mamluk Baybars was in power in Egypt, and represented the primary force opposing the Mongols, now led by Hulagu's son Abaqa Khan. Baybars sent two eunuchs as emissaries to al-Muwaḥḥid to try to persuade him to abandon the Mongols, and apparently the emir of Hisn Kayfa agreed. However, the envoys were caught by a local Mongol commander as they attempted to carry al-Muwaḥḥid's reply to Baybars. Abaqa had the envoys executed, and al-Muwaḥḥid was banished to the Ilkhanate court for seven years. By AH 672 (1273/1274) al-Muwaḥḥid had returned as the nominal ruler of Hisn Kayfa, where he remained until his death, variously reported as having occurred in AH 682 (1283/1284) or AH 693 (1293/1294).[42][38]
Mongol rule of the region continued until 1335, and this badly damaged both trade and agriculture, which had been the sources of the region's prosperity.
The economy of the region gradually shrank during the 14th and early 15th centuries, according to historian
During the 14th century, the emirs of Hisn Kayfa also controlled the interior of the
The Hisn Kayfa emirs also attacked and captured Siirt soon after the Mongol withdrawal. They fought for control of Siirt with forces from Arzan, and al-Ashraf of Hisn Kayfa succeeded in capturing it in 1341/42.[46]
In 1349/50, the Kara Koyunlu rose to dominate the region of the Diyar Bakr, and local princes such as those at Hisn Kayfa, paid tribute to them.
In the early and middle 15th century, Aq Qoyunlu Turkmen forces attacked Hisn Kayfa several times, but Ayyubid rulers managed to retain control of the city and the city prospered until very end of the 15th century.
In the 14th century, the
Aq Qoyunlu period (1462–1501)
During the second half of the 15th century, Hisn Kayfa was still governed by the
Uzun Hassan's initial capital was at
Aq Qoyunlu territory expanded further following their defeat of the Kara Koyunlu in Iran (1467–69), and Uzun Hassan moved his capital to Tabriz.[48] However, Hassan followed up these successes with a disastrous campaign against the Ottoman Empire. Hassan's army of light cavalry was routed by Mehmed II's Ottoman forces, armed with rifles and cannon, at the Battle of Otlukbeli near Erzincan in August 1473.[49] While Uzun Hassan survived, his son Zeynel Bey was killed in battle. In commemoration, the Mausoleum of Zeynel Bey was erected in Hasankeyf in about 1474 on the orders of either Uzun Hassan, or Zeynel's elder brother, Khalil. The shrine is currently moved to a new location to avoid inundation by the rising waters of the nearby dam. [50]
Safavid Empire (1504–1514/1517)
In 1504, during the reign of king (shah) Ismail I (r. 1501–1525) the Safavids founded the short-lived Diyarbakr Province, which consisted of six districts, including Hasankeyf.[51]
Ottoman Empire and Turkish Republic
In 1514/1517, the Ottoman Empire took Hasankeyf and the rest of the Safavid Diyarbakr Province.[52] In his 1614 History of the World, Walter Raleigh places "the Citie of Hasan-Cepha, otherwise Fortis Petra", upstream from the island of Eden, which he believed lay in the Tigris, based on his reading of Andreas Masius's De Paradiso Commentarius.[53]
Demographics
While villages surrounding the town are almost exclusively
Archeological sites
Hasankeyf is rich in history throughout the ages and aside from the sites below, thousands of caves exist in the cliffs that surround the city. Many of the caves are multi-storied and have their own water supply. Churches and mosques were also carved into the cliffs and numerous ancient cemeteries exist throughout the area.[58]
- Medieval Period. Support for the bridge was built with wood in case the bridge had to be removed in order to prevent an attack. Because of this, two piles and some foundation work are all that exist of the bridge today.[58]
- The Citadel – This structure sits 100 metres (330 ft) above the Tigris River, overlooking Hasankeyf. The Citadel has likely been used as a dwelling place for centuries.
- Small Palace – This palace was built by the Ayyubidsand overlooks Hasankeyf as it sits on a cliff.
- Ulu (Big) Mosque – With no inscriptions remaining, it is not exactly known when and by whom the mosque was built. However, it is thought that it dates from the period of the Ayyubidswho have subsequently restored the mosque in the years 1327, 1394 and 1396.
- Great Palace – The palace was built by the Artukids; it occupies an area of 2,350 metres (7,710 ft) and has an associated rectangular tower that may have been a watchtower.[58]
- El Rizk Mosque – The Mosque was built in 1409 by the
- Süleyman Mosque – This mosque was built by Sultan Süleyman and is all but destroyed except for a minaret. Süleyman's grave is missing from the site as well.
- Koc Mosque – The mosque is located east of the Süleyman Mosque and was likely built before the 15th century.[58]
- Kizlar Mosque – Located east of the Koc Mosque, the Kizlar mosque was also likely from the
- Imam Abdullah Tomb – This cube-shaped tomb lies west of the new bridge in Hasankeyf and is the tomb of Imam Abdullah. Abdullah was the grandson of Cafer-i Tayyar, (Jaʿfar ibn Abī Ṭālib (Arabic: جَعْفَر ابْن أَبِي طَالِب) cousin of the prophet Ayyubid period.[58]
- Zeynel Bey Mausoleum – Named after Zeynel Bey, this mausoleum is opposite Hasankeyf on the Tigris River. Zeynel Bey was the son of Uzun Hassan ruler of the Akkoyunlu Dynasty which ruled over Hasankeyf in the 15th century.[58] Zeynel Bey died in battle in 1473, and was buried in this circular brick mausoleum glazed with navy blue and turquoise tiles built by architect Pir Hasan. The building resembles in its architectural style mausoleums in Central Asia. This shrine has been relocated to the new Hasankeyf Cultural Park in 2017, set aside for historical artifacts impacted by the Ilısu Dam construction.[59]
Ilısu Dam impact
With its history that spans nine civilizations, the archaeological and religious significance of Hasankeyf is considerable. Many of the city's historical treasures were inundated as construction of the Ilısu Dam is completed.[60][61] These include the ornate mosques, Islamic tombs and cave churches. Up to 80,000 people in Hasankeyf were displaced. Some of these people were moved to a new city above the waterline.[62]
There was considerable local opposition to the scheme, and calls for Hasankeyf to be recognised and protected as an UNESCO World Heritage Site.[63][64]
According to the Buğday Association, based in Turkey, Ms. Huriye Küpeli, the prefect of Hasankeyf, the Swiss ambassador to Turkey and representatives of the Swiss led consortium of contractors for the dam project have suggested what they believe to be a suitable nearby spot for moving the historical heritage of Hasankeyf, an operation for which the Turkish Ministry of Culture pledged to provide 30 million euros, however current reports indicate that only eight historical monuments have been moved.[65][66]
The threat of the Ilısu Dam project prompted the World Monuments Fund to list the city on its 2008 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites in the world.[67] While this listing has created more awareness of the project, it has failed to prompt the Ilısu Consortium to develop alternate plans that are sympathetic to this site of exceptional historical and cultural significance.
In December 2008, following pressure from campaign groups, export credit insurers in
This meant that Turkey has had to finance the proposed project with internal sources. The Minister of Forestry and Environment, Veysel Eroğlu, on a number of platforms, declared that the government would build the Dam despite all obstacles - and objections. That the Ilısu Dam has become a "project of honour" for the Turkish State has been made very clear by Eroğlu.[70] "We do not need their money. We will construct this dam at any cost." Since 2009 the construction has proceeded with the financial support of Turkish banks; Garanti Bankası and Akbank. As a result of the resettlement program for the population, many residents of Hasankeyf moved to a Yeni Hasankeyf (New Hasankeyf) on a hill which was to be at the shore of the dam reservoir after the construction of the dam is terminated.[71] By July 2020, the ancient town was completely submerged in the waters of the dam.[72]
Climate
The local climate is moderated by the proximity of the Tigris river. It makes the winters milder, with lows of 6 °C (43 °F). Temperatures in summer can reach 43 °C (109 °F), and the yearly average temperature is 25 °C (77 °F).[4]
See also
Notes
- romanized: Ḥesno d-Kifo[3]
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{{citation}}
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