Religious syncretism

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Religious syncretism is the blending of religious belief systems into a new system, or the incorporation of other beliefs into an existing religious tradition.

This can occur for many reasons, where religious traditions exist in proximity to each other, or when a culture is conquered and the conquerors bring their religious beliefs with them, but do not succeed in eradicating older beliefs and practices.

Many religions have syncretic elements, but adherents often frown upon the application of the label, especially those who belong to "revealed" religions, such as Abrahamic religions, or any system with an exclusivist approach, seeing syncretism as corrupting the original religion.[1] Non-exclusivist systems of belief on the other hand feel more free to incorporate other traditions into their own.

Ancient history

See also: Ancient Greek religion and Religion in ancient Rome
Further information: Hellenistic religion

Classical Athens was exclusive in matters of religion. Some sources assert that the Decree of Diopeithes made the introduction of and belief in foreign gods a criminal offence,[2] and allowed only Greeks to worship in Athenian temples and festivals as foreigners were considered impure. Other sources dispute the existence of the decree.[3]

Syncretism functioned as a feature of

his oracle at Siwa.[4][5]

The

Sabazius
.

The degree of correspondence varied:

Pergamum
.

Likewise, when the Romans encountered

Sucellos (Apollo the Good Smiter) and Mars Thingsus (Mars of the war-assembly), among many others. In the Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus speaks of Germanic worshippers of Hercules and Mercury; most modern scholars tentatively identify Hercules as Thor and Mercury as Odin
.

Romans were familiar with the concept of syncretism because from their earliest times they had experienced it with, among others, the Greeks. The Romans incorporated the originally Greek Apollo and Hercules into their religion. They did not look at the religious aspects that they adopted from other cultures to be different or less meaningful from religious aspects that were Roman in origin. The early Roman acceptance of other cultures religions into their own made it easy for them to integrate the newly encountered religions they found as a result of their expansion.[6]

Early Christianity

dualism posited that only spiritual or invisible things were good, and that material or visible things were evil. Orthodox (mainstream) Christians have always insisted that matter is essentially good because they believe that God created all things, both spiritual and material,[7] and said that it was "very good".[8] Simon Magus has been identified as one of the early proponents of Gnosticism.[9]

In the first few centuries after the death of Jesus, there were various competing "Jesus movements". The Roman emperors used syncretism to help unite the expanding empire.[10] Social conversion to Christianity happened all over Europe. It became even more effective when missionaries concurred with established cultural traditions and interlaced them into a fundamentally Christian synthesis.[11] Sometimes old pagan gods—or at least their aspects and roles—were transferred to Christian saints, such as when Demetrius of Thessaloniki inherited the role of patron of agriculture from Demeter and the Eleusinian Mysteries after the latter's demise in the 4th century.[12]

Syncretism is distinguished from assimilation, the latter of which refers to the church's ability to "incorporate into herself all that is true, good, and beautiful in the world". This idea was present in the early Church; the Second Apology of Justin Martyr states: "Whatever things were rightly said among all men, are the property of us Christians".[13] The Church has assimilated many (though not all) of the ideas of Plato and Aristotle. Augustine of Hippo is remembered for assimilating the ideas of Plato, while Thomas Aquinas is known for doing so with the ideas of Aristotle. In his essay on the development of Christian doctrine,[14] John Henry Newman clarified the idea of assimilation.[15]

Early Judaism

Further information: Second Temple Judaism, Hellenistic Judaism, and Christianity and Judaism

In

angelology, and demonology through contacts with Zoroastrianism. However, some scholars dispute that claim.[16][17][18]

In spite of the Jewish

Jewish Messiah claimants (such as Jacob Frank) and the Sabbateans came to mix Kabbalistic
Judaism with Christianity and Islam.

Post-classical history

Islam and West Asian religions

Further information: Christian influences on the Islamic world, Din-i Ilahi, and Iranian religions § Medieval period

The Islamic mystical tradition known as Sufism appears somewhat syncretic in nature in its origins, but this is rejected by many other modern scholars.[19]

Mainstream

Qadiri, Shadhili
, and most others have always been part and parcel of normative Islamic life. During Sufi presence in Bengal, Muslim–Tantric syncretism was a general trend, and Nobibongšo by Syed Sultan is an example of it. The book tells the lineage of the prophets of Islam. Apart from Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus Christ, the poet also describes Dharmic figures such as Brahma, Vishnu, Rama and Krishna.

The

Berber language comprising 80 suras under the leadership of the second ruler of the dynasty Salih ibn Tarif who had taken part in the Maysara uprising. He proclaimed himself a prophet. He also claimed to be the final Mahdi of Islamic tradition, and that Isa (Jesus) would be his companion and pray behind him.[citation needed
]

The

Christian saints become the Druze's favorite venerated figures: Saint George and Saint Elijah.[21] According to scholar Ray Jabre Mouawad the Druzes appreciated the two saints for their bravery: Saint George because he confronted the dragon and Saint Elijah because he competed with the pagan priests of Baal and won over them.[21] In both cases the explanations provided by Christians is that Druzes were attracted to warrior saints that resemble their own militarized society.[21]

Satpanth is considered a syncretism of Ismaili Islam and Hinduism.

South and East Asian religions

Further information: Indian religions, East Asian religions, Buddhism and Eastern religions, and Hinduism in Southeast Asia
See also: Three teachings, Shinbutsu-shūgō, East Asian Buddhism, and Buddhism by country

Buddhism has syncretized with many traditional beliefs in

Mahayana Buddhism with Confucian philosophy and elements of Taoism, and Shinbutsu-shūgō, which is a syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism.[22] The religious beliefs, practices, and identities of East Asians (who comprise the majority of the world's Buddhists by any measure) often blend Buddhism with other traditions including Confucianism, the Chinese folk religion, Taoism, Shinto, Korean shamanism, and Vietnamese folk religion.[23][24][25][26][27] Before and during World War II, a Nichiren Shōshū priest named Jimon Ogasawara proposed the blending of Nichiren Buddhism with Shinto.[28]

Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Zoroastrianism in ancient India have made many adaptations over the millennia, assimilating elements of various religious traditions.[citation needed] One example of this is the Yoga Vasistha.[29]

Akram Vigyan Movement established by Dada Bhagwan is considered to be a Jain-Vaishnava Hindu syncretistic movement.[30]

The

Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic religion intended to merge the best elements of the religions of his empire, Allopanishad is the example there. Satpanth
is considered a syncretism of Ismaili Islam and Hinduism.

Meivazhi is a syncretic monotheistic minority religion based in Tamil Nadu, India. Its focus is spiritual enlightenment and the conquering of death, through the teachings. Mevaizhi preaches the Oneness of essence message of all the previous major scriptures – particularly Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Judaism and Christianity – allowing membership regardless of creed. Meivazhi's disciples are thousands of people belonging once to 69 different castes of different religions being united as one family of Meivazhi religion.

In China, most of the population follows syncretistic religions combining

Chinese traditional religion
, as many profess to be both Mahayana Buddhist and Taoist at the same time. Many of the pagodas in China are dedicated to both Buddhist and Taoist deities.

Likewise, in Southeast Asia, the local variants of Buddhism have been adapted to accommodate folk beliefs, such as the veneration of

nats in Myanmar and phi in Thailand. Tibetan Buddhism is also syncretic in adopting practices from the earlier Bön religion.[31] The various Indianised cultures of Southeast Asia also incorporated Hinduism with local beliefs and folklore, such as the veneration of Dewi Sri
in Java.

At least hundreds of thousands of people follow religions that syncretize Chinese folk religion and Christianity, while others follow similar belief structures that incorporate Islamic theology instead[32] and have precedent in some 19th and 20th century Muslim populations in China.[33]

The traditional

Jesus Christ as deities, depending on household beliefs.[34][35][36]

Modern history

Main article:
New religious movements

Christianity

Further information:
Christian new religious movements

One can contrast Christian syncretism with

Chinese rites controversy
.

Protestant Reformation

Syncretism did not play a role when Christianity split into

Georg Calisen "Calixtus" (1586–1656) of the University of Helmstedt for his "syncretism".[38] (See: Syncretistic controversy
.)

New World

Further information:
Afro-American religion
Mary
) on sale at a shop on Broadway in downtown Los Angeles.

Catholicism in Central and South America has been integrated with a number of elements derived from

Mictecacihuatl and the Lady of Guadalupe. As of 2012, Santa Muerte is worshipped by approximately 5% of the Mexican population, and also has a following in the United States and parts of Central America.[40]

Some Andean areas, such as in Peru, have a strong influence of Inca-originated Quechua culture into Catholicism. This often results in Catholic holy days and festivities featuring Quechua dances or figures, such as the Assumption of Mary celebration in Chinchaypujio, or the fertility celebrations for Pachamama in the mostly Catholic Callalli.

The

9/11 attacks and to the shootings at Newtown, Connecticut, on the grounds that joint worship with other Christian denominations or other religious faiths implied that differences between religions are not important.[41]

In the

personal revelation.[43]

The Lacandon people of Central America acknowledge Äkyantho', the god of foreigners. He has a son named Hesuklistos (Jesus Christ) who is supposed to be the god of the foreigners. They recognize that Hesuklistos is a god but do not feel he is worthy of worship as he is a minor god.[44]

East Asia

Mahayana Buddhist and Confucian customs that form an integral part of traditional Korean culture. As a result, South Korean Catholics continue to practice a modified form of ancestral rites and observe many Buddhist and Confucian customs and philosophies.[45][46] In Asia the revolutionary movements of Taiping (19th-century China) and God's Army (Karen in the 1990s) blended Christianity with traditional beliefs. Chinese Independent Churches, with membership up to eighty million,[47] incorporate elements of Protestantism and Chinese folk religion.[48]

Southeast Asia

An Islamic and Hindu-Buddhist-Animist Syncretist movement in Indonesia known as Abangan was politically and socially active for a while.[49] In the Philippines Folk Catholicism blends religious and magical elements from the precolonial Philippine nations which were practicing either Buddhism, Hinduism, Animism, Islam or other religions; together with Hispano-American Roman Catholicism.[50]

Mongolia

Khotons follow a syncretic form of Islam that incorporates Buddhist and traditional elements (like Tengrism).[51]

Spain

Church of Saint Eulalia in Palma de Mallorca, centers of Xueta religious ritual life.

Majorca today, and they practiced strict endogamy by marrying only within their own group.[53]

Hinduism and Islam

Punjab

See also: Hussaini Brahmin

Census reports taken in Punjab Province during the colonial era (British India) noted and documented various practices highlighting religious syncretism among Punjabi Muslims, Punjabi Hindus, and Meo Muslims.

"In other parts of the Province, too, traces of Hindu festivals are noticeable among the Muhammadans. In the western Punjab,

sharbat are served out) are clearly influenced by similar practices at Hindu festivals, while the illuminations on occasions like the Chiraghan fair of Shalamar (Lahore) are no doubt practices answering to the holiday-making instinct of the converted Hindus."[58]
: 174 

"Besides actual conversion, Islam has had a considerable influence on the Hindu religion. The sects of reformers based on a revolt from the orthodoxy of

Shias... they belong mostly to the Sunar caste and their connection with the sect is kept a secret, like Freemasonry. They pass as ordinary Hindus, but their devotion to the Imam is very strong."[58]
: 130 

"The Meos (Muhammadans) of the eastern Punjab still participate in the observance of the Holi and Diwali festivals. On the latter occasion they paint the horns, hoofs, etc.,of their bullocks and join in the general rejoicings".[58]: 174 

— Excerpts from the Census of India (Punjab Province), 1911 AD

Bengal

Further information: Bonbibi and Baul

Similar to that of Punjab, census reports conducted in British India highlighted syncretic practices among Bengali Hindus and Muslims.[59]

"That both were originally of the same race seems sufficiently clear, not only from comparisons to physical characteristics, but from the similarity of their language, manners and customs. The Bengali Musalman is still in many respects a

Hindu. Caste distinction, one of the main objects of which would seem to be to prescribe the limits of the jus connubii, are to a certain extent as prevalent and as fully recognised among the Mohammedans of Bengal,as among Hindus. As Buchanan pointed out sixty years ago, they not unfrequently meet at the same shrine, both invoking the same object of worship though perhaps under different names. Instead of commending a letter "In the name of God" (which is the orthodox fashion), the Bengali Musalman will superscribe the name of some Hindu deity. He speaks the same language, and uses precisely the same nomenclature and the same expressions of thought as his Hindu neighbor. Their very names are identical, the prefix of Shaikh alone distinguishing the convert to Islam."

— Excerpts from "The Census of Bengal
", 1874 AD, Page 87

In the Sundarbans (spread across Indian state of West Bengal and Bangladesh), it is noted that Bonbibi, a guardian spirit of the forests is venerated by Hindus and Muslim residents alike. In most of the shrines of Banbibi in the Sundarbans, Banbibi is most commonly worshipped along with her brother Shah Jangali and Dakkhin Rai.[60]

Bauls are a group of mynstric minstrels who put emphasis on their mystical elements with the tradition of music. Baul tradition is essentially an amalgamation of Vaishnavism and Sufism.[61] Baul has had a considerable effect on Bengali culture. Baul traditions are included in the list of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.[62]

Balochistan

See also: Hinduism in Balochistan and Bhagnari

Being a religious minority in the region for centuries, colonial officials found that indigenous Baloch Hindus developed a form of religious syncretism that incorporated many aspects of Islam into their cultures and traditions, greatly differing from the forms of orthodox

Baloch tribe
, typically unknowing of their caste background.

"Proverbially elastic though the term is,

Hindu caste that the main interest in these old trading families of Baluchistan is centred." [63]: 175 
"Except in Quetta, where the Hindu community has become so overgrown that conditions are abnormal, neither caste nor sub-caste enters into their composition: there is nothing incongruous or unusual in a Panchayat subscribing impartially to a Sikh Dharamsala and to the worship of a Devi or of Darya Pir; or in a Panchayat (like that of Chuharkot in Barkhan) which is composed almost wholly of Aroras having a Brahman as its president. In other words, a Panchayat is a Panchayat not of caste-members but of the whole body of Hindus in a village community. It is indeed almost always sheer waste of time to question a member of one of these old Hindu families regarding his caste. Brahman he knows and Musalman he knows; and it is enough for him that he is neither the one nor the other, but a Hindu pure and simple. Most of the families are undoubtedly Arora; some few are very possibly Khatri; the Bhatia of Las Bela are probably Rajput. But these are distinctions too nice for a local Hindu; it is more than possible that he may never have heard the terms before. Nevertheless, though his mind may be a blank as to the name of his caste, he can sometimes give the name of his sub-caste—possibly a hoary name like Ahuja, possibly a newly coined name like Ramzai or Panjazai, modelled on the name of a tribal section. But it is merely a matter of names after all. The Ramzai and the Panjazai and the Ahuja may have each some cherished peculiarities of their own. But such peculiarities strike no discord between them. The old Hindu families are a brotherhood of equals; among themselves they know no distinctions valid enough to influence the intercourse of everyday life." [63]
: 176 

— Excerpts from the Census of India, 1911 AD

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

See also: Hinduism in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Hussaini Brahmin

In a similar manner to the

Gangetic plain such as eastern Punjab or the United Provinces.[64][65]

"The names returned as those of

castes have been relaxed... any distinct caste organization is virtually non-existent in rural areas. Outside the towns Hindus still live in a condition of dependance on their Mohammadan overlords. The Arora, the Khatri, or the Bhatia shop-keeper in a village is a hamsaya of the proprietors of the land; that is to say, he lives rent free in a house which does not belong to him, and in return for this, and for being allowed to reside unmolested in the village, has to render certain services to his protectors." [64]
: 93–94 

— Excerpts from the Census of India (North-West Frontier Province), 1911 AD

Baháʼí Faith

Further information: Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion

The

sacred scripture, interpretations, laws, and practices that, for Baháʼís, supersede those of other faiths.[66][67]

Caribbean and Afro-American

Petwo family, and the Gede. In the center is a golden monstrance
.

The process of syncretism in the Caribbean region often forms a part of cultural creolization. (The technical term "

slaves
(primarily from Central and Western Africa). The influences of each of the above interacted in varying degrees on the islands, producing the fabric of society that exists today in the Caribbean.

The

Caribbean culture
.

Another highly syncretic religion of the area,

Roman Catholic
) beliefs.

Recently developed religious systems that exhibit marked syncretism include the

Native American deities, and Umbanda combined African deities with Kardecist spiritualism
.

Christian God
.

A

Virgin Mary. In Martinique
, a unique practice known as Maldevidan Spiritism developed among the Tamil community in the North coast which was fully syncretic, where Hindu and Tamil deities were syncretized with saints.

Other

Main article: List of new religious movements

Omnism is the belief in all religions with their gods.[68]

Many historical Native American religious movements have incorporated Christian European influence, like the Native American Church, that teaches a combination of traditional Native American beliefs and Christianity, with sacramental use of the entheogen peyote.[69] Further examples in North America are the Ghost Dance, and the religion of Handsome Lake.

indigenous South American shamanism, including vegetalismo
.

Universalist and Unitarian Christian
congregations. However, modern Unitarian Universalism freely incorporates elements from other religious and non-religious traditions, so that it no longer identifies as "Christian".

The

Spiritual Hierarchy
, and assembles evidence that points to an underlying (or occult) reality of Being that is universal and interconnected, common to all spirit-matter dualities. It is maintained that this is the source of religious belief, each religion simply casting that one reality through the prism of that particular time and in a way that is meaningful to their circumstances.

Universal Sufism seeks the unity of all people and religions. Universal Sufis strive to "realize and spread the knowledge of Unity, the religion of Love, and Wisdom, so that the biases and prejudices of faiths and beliefs may, of themselves, fall away, the human heart overflow with love, and all hatred caused by distinctions and differences be rooted out."[70]

Boddhisattva Guanyin, on his left is the red-faced warrior Guan Gong. Below Li Bai is Jesus, and below Jesus is Jiang Ziya
.

In Vietnam,

Catholicism, and Taoism
.

Several

Seicho-No-Ie
, are syncretistic.

The

Chrislam combines Pentecostal Christianity and Islamic doctrines.[71] Nigerian Yoruba people, which amount to almost fifty million, combine mainly protestant Christianity and Islamic practices.[72][73]

ancestor worship, ritual use of iboga, and Christianity into a syncretistic belief system.[76]

occultism, and the Kabbalah, as well as ancient Egyptian and Greek
religion.

Examples of strongly syncretistic

Neopaganism, and the New Age
movement.

Many of India’s estimated fifty million Pentecostals[77] have syncretic blends with Indian religions.[78] In Réunion, the Malbars practice at same time Hinduism and Christianity. but separately, not mixed (this is called "dual religious practice" in French "double pratique religieuse") but it's not considered as syncretism

The Unification Church, founded by religious leader Sun Myung Moon in South Korea in 1954, has teachings based on the Bible, but includes new interpretations not found in mainstream Judaism and Christianity and incorporates East Asian traditions.[79][80]

See also

References

  1. ISBN 0-85364-676-7
    . Retrieved 31 October 2016.
  2. ISBN 978-0-19-964465-0
    .
  3. ISBN 978-0-385-26032-9
    .
  4. ^ "Ammon (Siwa)". Livius.Org. Archived from the original on 23 September 2013. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
  5. ^ "Temple of Amun, Siwa Oasis, Egypt". SacredSites.com. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
  6. ^ Scheid, John. Graeco Ritu: A Typically Roman Way of Honoring the Gods. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 97, Greece in Rome: Influence, Integration, Resistance (1995), 15–31.
  7. ^ The Apostles Creed and The Nicene Creed
  8. ^ Genesis1:31
  9. ISBN 978-9004144958
    – via Google Books.
  10. ISBN 0609807986
    .
  11. ^ Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
  12. ^ Kloft (2010), p. 25.
  13. ^ Étienne Gilson, History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages, Justin Martyr, page 13
  14. ^ An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine
  15. ^ "Chapter 8. Application of the Third Note of a True Development—Assimilative Power", An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine
  16. ^ Boyce, Mary (1987). Zoroastrianism: A Shadowy but Powerful Presence in the Judaeo-Christian World. London: William's Trust.
  17. ^ Black, Matthew; Rowley, H. H., eds. (1982).
    ISBN 0-415-05147-9
    .
  18. ^ Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (1988). "Zoroastrianism". Encyclopedia Americana. Vol. 29. Danbury: Grolier. pp. 813–815.
  19. ^ [1] Encyclopædia Britannica, Retrieved on August 1st, 2016
  20. ISBN 9780863722493
    .
  21. ^
    ISBN 9781351722179
    .
  22. ^ "Living in the Chinese Cosmos: Understanding Religion in Late-Imperial China". afe.easia.columbia.edu.
  23. ^ "Chinese Cultural Studies: The Spirits of Chinese Religion". Academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu. Archived from the original on 3 December 2011. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
  24. ^ "Windows on Asia – Chinese Religions". Archived from the original on 2009-02-20.
  25. ^ "SACU Religion in China". Sacu.org. Archived from the original on 29 January 2014. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
  26. ^ "Buddhism in China". AskAsia. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
  27. ^ "Buddhism And Its Spread Along The Silk Road". Globaled.org. Archived from the original on 13 December 2011. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
  28. ^ Dumoulin, Heinrich; Maraldo, John C. (1976). Buddhism in the Modern World. The University of Virginia: Macmillan. p. 258.
  29. ^ Christopher Chapple, The concise Yoga Vāsiṣṭha By Venkatesananda, 1985, pp. xii
  30. ISBN 9788125028017
    .
  31. ^ Guide to Buddhism A to Z
  32. OCLC 141384600
    .
  33. ^ Wilson, Samuel Graham (1916). Modern Movements Among Moslems. United States: Fleming H. Revell Company. pp. 106–107.
  34. ISBN 8170997879
    .
  35. ISBN 978-1136846298
    .
  36. ISBN 978-1438119137
    .
  37. ISBN 978-1-4610-9382-4
  38. ^ "Syncretism", Cyclopedia, LCMS
  39. ^ "A short history of Tonantzin, Our Lady of Guadalupe". Indian Country News. Archived from the original on 2018-02-12. Retrieved 2019-03-04.
  40. ^ Chesnut, Andrew R. (2012). Devoted to Death: Santa Muerte, the Skeleton Saint. Oxford University Press. pp. 3–27.
  41. ^ Pastor Apologizes to His Denomination for Role in Sandy Hook Interfaith Service, The New York Times, 7 February 2013
  42. LDS Church
    , 2011, pp. 87–93
  43. Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Joseph Smith
    , LDS Church, 2007, pp. 261–70
  44. ^ McGee, Jon (2002) "Watching Lacandon Maya Lives," Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
  45. ISBN 978-1-4411-1749-6
    .
  46. ^ Sang-Hun, Choe (19 July 2006). "Quest for perfect grave keeps Korean feud alive - Asia - Pacific - International Herald Tribune". The New York Times.
  47. ISBN 978-1-107-47069-9
    . Retrieved 2023-08-05.
  48. ISBN 978-1-317-47501-9
    . Retrieved 2023-08-05.
  49. ISBN 978-1-136-72639-2
    .
  50. ISBN 0761456716
    .
  51. ISBN 9781608190720
    .
  52. ^ "El cristianismo judío de un chueta pobre". Monografias.com (in Spanish). 9 February 2003. Retrieved 10 November 2011.
  53. ^ a b "The New Yorker reviving Jewish life on a holiday island". BBC. 18 August 2019.
  54. ^ ""A Dead Branch on the Tree of Israel" The Xuetas of Majorca". Commentary. 17 February 1957.
  55. ISBN 9780674037830
    .
  56. ISBN 9781134924745
    . The Xueta had their own church—St Eulalia's—in their barrio, with a Xueta priest, and their own cofraternity (the Cross of Calvary) to march in the Holy Week procession.
  57. ^ "'Xuetas' Return to Their Roots in Majorca". Tabletmag. 9 January 2023.
  58. ^ a b c "Census of India 1911. Vol. 14, Punjab. Pt. 1, Report". Retrieved 21 July 2022.
  59. JSTOR 2338834
    .
  60. ISBN 978-1-4384-3325-7
    .
  61. ^ "Bauled over - Times Of India". 2012-11-04. Archived from the original on 2012-11-04. Retrieved 2022-12-13.
  62. ^ https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://portal.unesco.org//en/ev.php-URL_ID=30973&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html. Retrieved 2022-12-13. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  63. ^ a b c "CENSUS OF INDIA, 1911 VOLUME IV BALUCHISTAN". Retrieved 21 January 2024.
  64. ^
    JSTOR saoa.crl.25394102
    . Retrieved 21 January 2024.
  65. ^ a b "CENSUS OF INDIA, 1921 VOLUME XIV NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE". Retrieved 2 February 2023.
  66. ISBN 1-85168-184-1 – via Internet Archive
    .
  67. ^ Stockman, Robert (1997). The Baháʼí Faith and Syncretism Archived 2011-07-09 at the Wayback Machine.
  68. ^ "Definition of OMNIST". Merriam-Webster. 2023-02-15. Retrieved 2023-02-17.
  69. ^ Miller, Timothy (2015-04-02). "Native American Church". Archived from the original on 2015-04-02. Retrieved 2022-07-07.
  70. ^ "Hazrat Pir-o-Murshid Inayat Khan, The 3 Objects of the Sufi Movement". Archived from the original on December 27, 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-03., Sufi Ruhaniat International (1956–2006).
  71. ISBN 978-1-60833-108-6
    . Retrieved 2023-08-06.
  72. ISBN 978-1-000-82809-2
    . Retrieved 2023-08-05.
  73. ISBN 978-981-16-5379-7
    . Retrieved 2023-08-05.
  74. ISBN 978-0-19-804069-9
    . Retrieved 2023-08-04.
  75. ISBN 978-3-647-57336-6
    . Retrieved 2023-08-04.
  76. ^ Fernandez, James W. (1982). "The Ibogaine Dossier. Bwiti: an Ethnography of the Religious Imagination in Africa". Archived from the original on 28 June 2006. Retrieved 2022-01-08.
  77. ISBN 978-0-465-06568-4
    . Retrieved 2023-08-06.
  78. ISBN 978-94-007-2387-0
    . Retrieved 2023-08-06.
  79. ^ George D. Chryssides, "Unificationism: A study in religious syncretism", Chapter 14 in Religion: empirical studies, Editor: Steven Sutcliffe, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004,
    ISBN 978-0-7546-4158-2
  80. ISBN 978-0-89875-607-4, page 1–42. Google books listing

Literature
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Religious_syncretism&oldid=1219469496"