Romania in Antiquity
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The Antiquity in Romania spans the period between the foundation of
Archaeological research prove that
Modern Dobruja—the territory between the Lower Danube and the Black Sea—was the first historical region of Romania to have been incorporated in the Roman Empire. The region was attached to the Roman province of Moesia between 46 and 79 AD. The Romans also occupied Banat, Oltenia and Transylvania after the fall of Decebalus and the disintegration of his kingdom in 106. The three regions together formed the new province of Dacia. The new province was surrounded by "barbarian" tribes, including the Costoboci, the Iazyges and the Roxolani. New Germanic tribes—the Buri and the Vandals—arrived and settled in the vicinity of Dacia province in the course of the Marcomannic Wars in the second half of the 2nd century.
Background
The antrophomorphic figurines of the "
Practically nothing is known of the languages spoken by the locals in this period.[7] Historians—for instance, Vlad Georgescu and Mihai Rotea—say that the spread of Indo-European languages began in the period between 2500 and 2000 BC.[5][8][6] Fortified settlements and the great number of weapons—arrowheads, spears and knife blades—unearthed in them show that the stability featuring the Stone Age cultures of "Old Europe" came to an end in the same period.[8]
Coexistence of a great number of transitory cultures, including the "
Before the Romans
Greek colonies
Inscriptions from Histria and Callatis prove that the townsfolk preserved their ancestral traditions for more than half a millennium.[21][22] They maintained the ancient denominations for their tribes, magistrates, and public bodies, and remained faithful to cults taken from the motherland.[16] The three colonies developed into important centers of trade in olive oil, wine, fine pottery and jewelry.[14][23] A level of houses and temples destroyed proves that an unidentified enemy—according to the scholar Paul MacKendrick, Scythians—took and sacked Histria in the late 6th century BC.[24]
Initially, the constitution of Histria was an oligarchy, but, as Aristotle recorded, "it ended in the rule of the populace".[25][26] MacKendrick writes that this change from the rule of aristocratic families to democracy occurred around 450 BC.[27] Thereafter an assembly and council administered Histria; their members were elected by the free male citizens of the town.[27] Callatis also became a democracy in the second half of the 5th century BC.[28] According to MacKendrick, the fragment "KA…" in an inscription listing the Greek towns paying tribute to Athens refers to Callatis, proving that the town became a member of the Delian League.[29]
For defensive purposes, both Histria and Callatis were surrounded by walls: the former in the 4th and 2nd centuries BC, the latter in the 4th century BC.[30] King Lysimachus of Thrace forced Histria to accept his suzerainty in the 310s BC, and Celts sacked the town in 279 BC.[31] Histria and Callatis attempted to take the port of Tomis, but they were defeated around 262 BC.[20]
Getae
The natives of the Lower Danube region came to the attention of classical authors after the establishment of Greek colonies along the Black Sea shore.
The "Ferigile-Bârseşti" group of cremation
The "Getae beyond
After Alexander the Great's death, Lysimachus of Thrace ruled the northern regions of the
Syginnae
The Syginnae, who had "small, short-faced, long-haired horses",
Agathyrsi
Herodotus writes that the
Quivers decorated with metal crosses, mirrors and other featuring artifacts of the "Agathyrsian territory" appeared in the easternmost regions of the plains along the River Tisa around 500 BC, suggesting that the Agathyrsi expanded their rule over these territories in the subsequent century.[56] Although Aristotle in his Problems still referred to the Agathyrsi, stating that they "sang their laws, so as not to forget them",[57] thereafter no written source makes mention of them.[56] Their cemeteries ceased to be used around 350 BC.[56] Whether the Agathyrsi were assimilated by other tribes, or abandoned their lands, cannot be decided.[56][36]
Celts
In the period between 450 and 200 BC, the vast territory between the
"La Tène" settlements were consisted of semi-sunken huts, each with a nearby storage pit.[61] Large "La Tène" cemeteries were unearthed, for instance, at
Bastarnae
The Bastarnae settled in the region between the rivers
Rustoiu identifies the Bastarnae as the bearers of the "Poieneşti–Lukašovka culture" of the regions to the east of the Carpathian Mountains,[65] but this identification is not universally accepted.[66] For instance, "Poieneşti–Lukašovka" settlements were inhabited by a sedentary population,[65] but the historian Malcolm Todd says that the mobility of the Bastarnic warriors suggests that they were mustered by a nomad or semi-nomad people.[66] Besides ceramics featuring the culture, "Poieneşti–Lukašovka" sites yielded pottery with analogies in Dacian and Celtic sites.[65]
Towards Roman occupation
Greek colonies
Callatis, Histria and Tomis accepted the suzerainty of King
The three towns made an anti-Roman alliance with the Bastarnae, the Getae and other "barbarian" tribes in 61 BC.[68] They inflicted a decisive defeat on the Roman armies which were under the command of Gaius Antonius Hybrida, Proconsul of Macedonia.[70] King Burebista of the Dacians subjugated the three Greek colonies in about 50 BC.[71][72] An inscription from the same time refers to the "second founding" of Histria, implying that it had been nearly destroyed during the previous wars.[73]
Callatis, Histria and Tomis regained their freedom after the death of Burebista in 44 BC.[73] However, their independence became nominal and they accepted Roman protectorate after the expedition of 27 BC by Marcus Licinius Crassus in the lands between the Lower Danube and the Black Sea.[73] The Roman poet, Ovid spent his last years in exile in Tomis between 9 and 17 AD.[73] His poems evidence that barbarian attack was a constant menace for the townsfolk in this period.[74]
Would you care to learn the nature of the local inhabitants,
find out amid what customs I survive?
They're a mixed stock, Greek and native, but the natives –
still barely civilized – prevail.
Great hordes of tribal nomads – Sarmatians, Getae –
come riding in and out here, hog the crown
of the road, every one of them carrying bow and quiver
and poisoned arrows, yellow with viper's gall:
harsh voices, fierce faces, warriors incarnate,
hair and beards shaggy, untrimmed,
hands not slow to draw – and drive home – the sheath knife
that each barbarian wears strapped at his side.
Dacians
The earliest records of the Dacians are connected to their conflicts with the Roman Empire in the 2nd century BC.[76][77] Strabo writes, in his Geographica, that their language "is the same as that of the Getae".[78][76] He adds that the distinction between the Getae and the Dacians is based on their location: the Getae are "those who incline towards the Pontus and the east," and the Dacians are "those who incline in the opposite direction towards Germany and the sources of the Ister".[78][79]
Archaeological finds—cremation graves yielding horse bits, curved daggers or sica, swords and other weapons—evidence the development of a military elite in the territories to the north of the Lower Danube in the 3rd-1st centuries BC.[80] Tumuli with similar grave goods appeared in the same region and expanded towards southwest Transylvania and southern Moldavia from around 100 BC.[81] The military character of the new elite is proven by the frequent raids against the neighboring territories, primarily in Thrace and Macedonia, from the 110s BC, which provoked counter-attacks by the Romans.[82][77] For instance, Frontinus writes of Marcus Minucius Rufus's victory over "the Scordiscans and Dacians"[83] in 109 BC, and Florus says that Gaius Scribonius Curio, Proconsul of Macedonia "reached Dacia, but shrank from its gloomy forests"[84] in 74 BC.[82][77]
The native tribes of the wider region of the Lower Danube were for the first time united under King
Strabo writes that Burebista "had as his coadjutor
Strabo writes that Burebista "was deposed"[90] during an uprising.[93] The year of Burebista's fall cannot exactly be determined,[93] but most historians write that he was assassinated in 44 BC.[88][85][95][86] Strabo narrates that after Burebista's death his empire fall apart and four (later five) smaller polities developed in its ruins.[93] The names of some of their kings were recorded by Roman writers.[96] For instance, Dicomes, "the king of the Getae, promised to come and join" Mark Antony "with a great army",[97] according to Plutarch.[98]
A new empire dominated by the Dacians emerged in the reign of
Bastarnae
Cassius Dio narrates that the Bastarnae "crossed the Ister and subdued the part of Moesia opposite them"[104] in 29 or 28 BC.[65] Marcus Licinius Crassus in short routed them.[65] In the first decades of the next century, the Sarmatians who arrived from the Pontic steppes became the dominant power of the regions up to that time inhabited by the Bastarnae.[105]
Roman provinces and the neighboring tribes
Lower Moesia
The year when the lands between the Lower Danube and the Black Sea, including the three Greek colonies of Callatis, Histria and Tomis, were annexed by the Roman Empire is uncertain. According to the historians Kurt W. Treptow and Marcel Popa, this happened in 46 AD.
The region flourished under
Dacia Trajana
The peaceful relationship between the Roman Empire and Decebalus's realm came to an end after Emperor
Under Emperor Trajan a procurator—a former consul—ruled the province.
Eutropius writes that Emperor Trajan transferred "vast numbers of people from all over the Roman world to inhabit the countryside and the cities", because "Dacia had, in fact, been depopulated"
The exploitation of natural resources—primarily mining of copper, gold, iron, lead, salt, and silver—had a preeminent role in the economy of Dacia province.[123][124] Archaeological research also revealed the existence of workshops producing pottery, weapons, glass for the local market.[125][126] Roads built for military purposes also contributed to the development of long-distance trade.[126]
Dacia became subject of frequent plundering raids by the Carpi and other neighboring tribes from the 230s.
Sarmatians
Costoboci
The Costoboci were a
During the Marcomannic War, the Costoboci plundered the Roman provinces in the Eastern Balkans as far as
Germanic tribes
The Marcomannic Wars, which lasted from 162 to 180, caused a series of population shifts along the eastern frontiers of the Roman Empire.
A new enemy of the Roman Empire, the
Carpi
The natives dwelling to the east of the Carpathians were collectively known as Carpi from the 3rd century.
Afterwards
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