History of Transylvania
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After the
In 1690, the Habsburg dynasty claimed and gained possession of Transylvania through the historic rights of the Hungarian crown.[3][4][5] After the failure of Rákóczi's War of Independence in 1711, Habsburg control of Transylvania was consolidated and Hungarian Transylvanian princes were replaced with Habsburg imperial governors.[6][7] During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the Hungarian government proclaimed union with Transylvania in the April Laws of 1848.[8] After the failure of the revolution, the March Constitution of Austria decreed that the Principality of Transylvania be a separate crown land entirely independent of Hungary.[9] After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the separate status[10] of Transylvania ceased and the region was incorporated again into the Kingdom of Hungary (Transleithania) as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.[11] During this period the Romanian community experienced the awakening of self-consciousness as a nation, which was manifested in cultural and ideological movements such as Transylvanian School,[12] and the drafting of political petitions such as Supplex Libellus Valachorum.[13] After World War I, the National Assembly of Romanians from Transylvania proclaimed the Union of Transylvania with Romania on 1 December 1918. Transylvania became part of Kingdom of Romania by the Treaty of Trianon in 1920. In 1940, Northern Transylvania reverted to Hungary as a result of the Second Vienna Award, but it was returned to Romania after the end of World War II.
Due to its varied history, the population of Transylvania is ethnically, linguistically, culturally and religiously diverse. From 1437 to 1848 political power in Transylvania was shared among the mostly
The region's history may be traced through the religions of its inhabitants. For the first time in history, the
Name of Transylvania
The earliest known reference to Transylvania appears in a Medieval Latin document of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1075 as "ultra silvam", in the Gesta Hungarorum as "terra ultrasilvana", meaning "land beyond the forest" ("terra" means land, "ultra" means "beyond" or "on the far side of" and the accusative case of "silva", "silvam" means "woods, forest"). Transylvania, with an alternative Latin prepositional prefix, means "on the other side of the woods". The Hungarian form Erdély was first mentioned in the Gesta Hungarorum as "Erdeuelu". The Medieval Latin form "Ultrasylvania", later Transylvania, was a direct translation from the Hungarian form "Erdőelve" ("erdő" means "forest" and "elve" means "beyond" in old Hungarian).[15][16] That also was used as an alternative name in German "Überwald" ("über" means "beyond" and "wald" means forest) in the 13th–14th centuries. The earliest known written occurrence of the Romanian name Ardeal appeared in a document in 1432 as "Ardeliu". The Romanian Ardeal is derived from the Hungarian Erdély.[17] Erdelj in Serbian and Croatian, Erdel in Turkish were borrowed from this form as well.
According to the Romanian linguist Nicolae Drăganu, the Hungarian name of Transylvania evolved over time from Erdőelü, Erdőelv, Erdőel, Erdeel in chronicles and written charters from 1200 up to late 1300. In written sources from 1390, we can find also the form Erdel, which can be read also as Erdély. There is evidence for that in the written Wallachian Chancellery Charters expressed in Slavonic where the word appears as Erûdelû (1432), Ierûdel, Ardelîu (1432), ardelski (1460, 1472, 1478–1479, 1480, 1498, 1507–1508, 1508), erdelska, ardelska (1498). With the first texts written in Romanian (1513) the name Ardeal appears to be written. Drăganu claims that the greatest Romanian philologists and historians maintain that Ardeal came from Hungarian.[18]
Ancient history
Scythians
According to the archaeological evidence, Transylvania was ruled by several proto-Scythian groups, but the first of which we know by name were the Agathyrsi.[19]
Herodotus gives an account of the Agathyrsi, who lived in Transylvania during the fifth century BCE. He described them as a luxurious people who enjoyed wearing gold ornaments.[20] Herodotus also claimed that the Agathyrsi held their wives in common, so all men would be brothers.[21]
The Agathyrsi, later partly assimilated into the Dacians.[22]
Dacian states
A kingdom of Dacia existed at least as early as the early second century BCE under King Oroles. Under Burebista, the foremost king of Dacia and a contemporary of Julius Caesar, the kingdom reached its maximum extent. The area now constituting Transylvania was the political center of Dacia.
The Dacians are often mentioned by Augustus, according to whom they were compelled to recognize Roman supremacy. However, they were not subdued and in later times crossed the frozen Danube during winter and ravaging Roman cities in the recently acquired Roman province of Moesia.
The Dacians built several important
Roman-Dacian Wars
In 101, the emperor
While ancient sources report the total extermination of the Dacian people,[28][29][30] the conquest had a drastic impact on the demography of the region.[28][31][32][33] Large parts of the population were enslaved, killed or expelled during the war.[28][32][33] Settlers from around the empire repopulated the area.[28][33]
Following the war, several parts of Dacia including Transylvania were organized into the Roman province of
Roman Dacia
The newly formed province of Dacia incorporate the areas south and southeast of Carpathians that were previously added to Moesia. Two major military centres were established at
After a diversionary manoeuvre led by Sultan Murad II it was clear that the goal of the Ottomans was not to consolidate their grip on the Balkans and intimidate the Hungarians, but to conquer Hungary.
A key figure in Transylvania at this time was
Sultan Murad II proclaimed a raid into Transylvania, John Hunyadi defeated the raiding Ottoman army at the Battle of Hermannstadt in 1442.[168][169] John Hunyadi and his 15,000 men defeated the 80,000-strong army of Beylerbey Şehabeddin at Zajkány (today's Zeicani), near the Iron Gate of the Danube river in 1442.[170]
The
Early modern period
Principality of Transylvania
When the main Hungarian army and King
Transylvania became a semi-independent state under the
Transylvania was governed by princes and its Diet (parliament). The Transylvanian Diet consisted of three estates: the Hungarian elite (largely ethnic Hungarian nobility and clergy), Saxon leaders (German burghers) and the free Székely Hungarians.
The Báthory family, which assumed power at the death of John II in 1571, ruled Transylvania as princes under the Ottomans (and briefly under
Michael gained control of Transylvania (supported by the
After his defeat at Miriszló, the Transylvanian estates swore allegiance to the Habsburg emperor Rudolph. Basta subdued Transylvania in 1604, initiating a reign of terror in which he was authorised to appropriate land belonging to noblemen,
From 1604 to 1606, the
Gabriel Bethlen (who reigned from 1613 to 1629) thwarted all efforts of the emperor to oppress (or circumvent) his subjects, and won a reputation abroad by championing the Protestant cause. He waged war on the emperor three times, was proclaimed King of Hungary twice and obtained a confirmation of the Treaty of Vienna for the Protestants (and seven additional counties in northern Hungary for himself) in the Peace of Nikolsburg signed December 31, 1621. Bethlen's successor, George I Rákóczi, was equally successful. His principal achievement was the Peace of Linz (September 16, 1645), the last political triumph of Hungarian Protestantism, in which the emperor was forced to reconfirm the articles of the Peace of Vienna. Gabriel Bethlen and George I Rákóczi aided education and culture, and their reign has been called the golden era of Transylvania.[citation needed] They lavished money on their capital Alba Iulia (Gyulafehérvár or Weißenburg), which became the main bulwark of Protestantism in Central Europe. During their reign, Transylvania was one of the few European countries where Roman Catholics, Calvinists, Lutherans and Unitarians lived in mutual tolerance—all officially accepted religions (religiones recaepte). The Orthodox, however, still had inferior status.
This golden age (and relative independence) of Transylvania ended with the reign of
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John Sigismund Zápolya, King of Hungary (1540–1551, 1556–1570), first Prince of Transylvania (1570–1571)
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Stephen Báthory, Prince of Transylvania, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania (1576–1586)
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Sigismund Báthory, Prince of Transylvania (1586–1598, 1598–1599, 1601–1602), Wallachia and Moldavia (1595)
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Michael the Brave, Prince of Wallachia (1593–1601) and Moldavia (1600), and self-styled deputy in Transylvania (1599–1600)
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Stephen Bocskai, Prince of Transylvania and Hungary (1605–1606)
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Gabriel Báthory, Prince of Transylvania (1608–1613)
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Gabriel Bethlen, Prince of Transylvania (1613–1629) and King of Hungary (1620-1621)
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George I Rákóczi, Prince of Transylvania (1630–1648)
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George II Rákóczi, Prince of Transylvania (1648–1657)
Habsburg rule
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After the defeat of the Ottomans at the
From 1711 onward, Habsburg control over Transylvania was consolidated and Transylvanian princes were replaced with Habsburg imperial governors.
On November 2, 1784, a
In 1791 the Romanians petitioned Emperor Leopold II for religious equality and recognition as a fourth "nation" in Transylvania (Supplex Libellus Valachorum). The Transylvanian Diet rejected their demands, restoring the Romanians to their marginalised status.
Late modern period
Revolutions of 1848
In early 1848, the Hungarian Diet took the opportunity presented by
In September 1848, the Austrian commander Karl von Urban was the first to make a stand against the Revolution. He summoned leaders of all 44 districts of the Principality to his headquarters in Naszód (Năsăud) on 10 September, and offered protection both to villages that rejected conscription and to the landowners who feared a peasant rising. Urban then administered the oath of allegiance to the hundreds of peasants and village delegate, finally denouncing the Revolution in a Memorandum widely distributed.[181] Von Urban acted in such a compelling manner that, by the end of September, 918 communities in the region had distanced themselves from the Revolution and were won over to the Imperial and Counter-revolutionary cause. This dealt a fatal blow to the power of the revolutionary party in Transylvania.[181]
Soon after, another Romanian assembly in Balázsfalva (Blaj) denounced the union with Hungary and called for an armed uprising in Transylvania. War broke out in November, with Austrian troops led by
The Austrians clearly rejected the October demand that ethnic criteria become the basis for internal borders, with the goal of creating a province for Romanians (Transylvania, alongside Banat and Bukovina); they did not want to replace the threat of Hungarian nationalism with a potential one of Romanian separatism. However, they did not declare themselves hostile to the creation of Romanian administrative offices in Transylvania (which prevented Hungary from including the region in all but name). The territory was organized into prefecturi (prefectures), with Avram Iancu and Buteanu two prefects in the Apuseni Mountains. Iancu's prefecture, the Auraria Gemina (a name charged with Latin symbolism), became important; it took over from bordering areas which were never fully organized.
Administrative efforts were then halted as Hungarians, under Józef Bem, carried out an offensive through Transylvania. With the covert assistance of
In April 1849, Iancu was approached by Hungarian envoy Ioan Dragoș (a Romanian deputy in the Hungarian Parliament). Dragoș was apparently acting from a desire for peace, and he worked to have Romanian leaders meet him in Abrudbánya (today Abrud) and listen to the Hungarian demands. Iancu's adversary, Hungarian commander Imre Hatvany, seems to have exploited the provisional armistice to attack the Romanians in Abrudbánya. However, Iancu and his men retreated and encircled him.
Hatvany angered the Romanians by having Buteanu captured and murdered. As his position became weaker, he was attacked by Iancu's men until his defeat on May 22. Hatvany and most of his armed group were massacred by their adversaries; Iancu captured their cannons, switching the tactical advantage for the next several months. Lajos Kossuth was angered by Hatvany's gesture (an inspection at the time dismissed all of Hatvany's close collaborators), since it made future negotiations unlikely.
However, the conflict became less harsh: Iancu's men concentrated on seizing local resources and supplies, opting to inflict losses only through skirmishes. The Russian intervention in June precipitated an escalation, since the Poles fighting in the Hungarian revolutionary contingents wanted to resist the Tsarist armies. Henryk Dembiński, a Polish general, negotiated for a truce between Kossuth and the Wallachian émigré revolutionaries. The latter, who were close to Iancu (especially Nicolae Bălcescu, Gheorghe Magheru, Alexandru G. Golescu, and Ion Ghica) wanted to defeat the Russian armies that had crushed their movement in September 1848.
Bălcescu and Kossuth met in May 1849 at Debrecen. The contact has long been celebrated by Romanian Marxist historians and politicians. Karl Marx's condemnation of everything opposing Kossuth led to any Romanian initiative being automatically considered "reactionary". The agreement was not a pact: Kossuth flattered the Wallachians, encouraging them to persuade Iancu's armies leaving Transylvania to help Bălcescu in Bucharest. While agreeing to mediate for peace, Bălcescu never presented these terms to the fighters in the Apuseni Mountains. All Iancu agreed to was the neutrality of his forces in the conflict between Russia and Hungary. Thus, he secured his position as the Hungarian armies suffered defeats in July (culminating in the Battle of Segesvár) and capitulated on August 13.
After quashing the revolution, Austria imposed a repressive regime on Hungary and ruled Transylvania directly through a military governor, with German as the official language. Austria abolished the Union of Three Nations and acknowledged the Romanians. Although the former serfs were given land by the Austrian authorities, it was often barely sufficient for subsistence living. These poor conditions caused many Romanian families to cross into Wallachia and Moldavia in search for better lives.
Romanian nationalists Sterca-Șuluțiu, Bariț, Bărnuțiu and Laurian demanded that the "other nations of Transylvania should call the Romanian nation Romanian, not oláh or walach". The 1849 Transylvanian national assembly accepted this demand.[182][183]
Austro-Hungarian Empire
Due to external and internal problems, reforms seemed inevitable to secure the integrity of the Habsburg Empire. Major Austrian military defeats (such as the 1866 Battle of Königgrätz) forced Austrian emperor Franz Joseph to concede internal reforms. To appease Hungarian separatism, the emperor made a deal with Hungary (the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, negotiated by Ferenc Deák) by which the dual monarchy of Austria–Hungary came into existence. The two realms were governed separately by two parliaments from two capitals, with a common monarch and common external and military policies. Economically, the empire was a customs union. The first prime minister of Hungary after the Compromise was Count Gyula Andrássy. The old Hungarian Constitution was restored, and Franz Joseph was crowned as King of Hungary. Romanian intellectuals issued the Blaj Pronouncement in protest of the Compromise.[184]
The era saw considerable economic development, with the GNP per capita growing roughly 1.45 percent annually from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared favorably with that of other European nations, such as Britain (1.00 percent), France (1.06 percent), and Germany (1.51 percent). Technological growth accelerated industrialization and urbanization. Many state institutions and the modern administrative system of Hungary were established during this period. However, as a result of the Compromise the special status of Transylvania ended; it became a province under the Hungarian diet. While part of Austria-Hungary, Transylvania's Romanians were oppressed by the Hungarian administration through Magyarization;[185][186] German Saxons were also subject to this policy. During this time, Hungarian-administered Transylvania consisted of a 15-county (
First World War
At the outbreak of
On 17 August 1916, Romania signed a secret treaty (the
King Ferdinand's wife,
Interbellum
In 1918, as a result of the German defeat in World War I the Austro-Hungarian monarchy collapsed. On October 31, the successful Aster Revolution in Budapest brought the left liberal, pro-Entente count Mihály Károlyi to power as prime minister of Hungary. Influenced by Woodrow Wilson's pacifism, Károlyi ordered the disarmament of Hungarian Army. The Károlyi government outlawed all Hungarian armed associations and proposals intending to defend the country.
The resulting
The leaders of Transylvania's
The Romanian Army, representing the
The prime minister of the newly proclaimed Republic of Hungary resigned in March 1919, refusing the territorial concessions (including Transylvania) demanded by the Entente. When the
România Mare ("Great Romania") refers to the
At the end of World War I the Deputies of Transylvanian Romanians declared the union of Transylvania with Romania in Alba Iulia on 1. December 1918.; Bessarabia, having declared independence from
Contemporary history
Second World War and Communist period
In August 1940, during the
The Allied Governments regard the decision of the Vienna award regarding Transylvania as null and void and are agreed that Transylvania (or the greater part thereof) should be returned to Rumania, subject to confirmation at the peace settlement, and the Soviet Government agrees that Soviet forces shall take part for this purpose in joint military operations with Rumania against Germany and Hungary.
The 1947 Treaty of Paris reaffirmed the borders between Romania and Hungary, as originally defined in Treaty of Trianon, 27 years earlier, thus confirming the return of Northern Transylvania to Romania. From 1947 to 1989, Transylvania, as the rest of Romania, was under a communist regime.
In 1950, Romania adopted a
Two years later, in 1952, under Soviet pressure,
In December 1960, a governmental decree modified the boundaries of the Magyar Autonomous Region. Its southern raions were reattached to Brașov Region (former Stalin Region) and in place of this, several raions were joined to it from Cluj Region. The region was called the Mureș Region-Magyar Autonomous, after the Mureș River. The ratio of Hungarians was thus reduced from 77.3% to 62%.[citation needed] According to Kopyś, this was done to water down the proportion of Hungarians in preparation to eventually abolishing the autonomy of the region.[citation needed]
In 1968, the
Amid tensions in the late 1980s, early protests occurred in the city of Timișoara in mid-December on the part of the Hungarian minority in response to an attempt by the government to evict Hungarian Reformed Church pastor László Tőkés. In response, Romanians sought the deposition of Ceaușescu and a change in government in light of similar recent events in neighbouring nations. Riots and protests resumed the following day.
On the morning of 21 December, Ceaușescu addressed an assembly of approximately 100,000 people to condemn the uprising in Timișoara. The protest demonstration soon erupted into a riot; the crowd took to the streets, placing the capital, like Timișoara, in turmoil. The revolution ultimately resulted in the fall of Ceausescu and the communist regime.
Post-Communist period
Today, "Transylvania proper" is included within the Romanian counties (.
Demographics and historical research
There is an ongoing scholarly debate between Hungarian and Romanian historians regarding the medieval population of Transylvania. While some Romanian historians claim continuous Romanian majority, Hungarian historians claim the continuous settlement of Romanians into the Kingdom of Hungary.
Romanian historian Ioan-Aurel Pop estimates as many as 800,000 people living in Roman Dacia by the 3rd century, and doubts the newly formed province south of the Danube could have absorbed such a large population.[192] Romanian historian Marian Țiplic claims that the population of Transylvania during the Roman administration was estimated about 300,000 inhabitants, which number based on the comparison with the European average during the Roman period and the size of Transylvania which is 60,000 km². Higher estimations are exaggerations, because Transylvania had about 300,000 inhabitants in the beginning of 14th century.[193]
According to Hungarian historiography, Latin-speaking people north of the Danube did not remain. Priscus, 5th-century Eastern Roman diplomat and historian described his journey to Attila, he wrote that the people in the "land of the Huns" understood only Goth (Germanic) and Scythian (Hunnic) language.[194]
According to Hungarian historiography, the analysis of the Transylvanian river names is confirmed by archaeological finds, that the Hungarians who settled in Transylvania during the 10th century encountered Slavs throughout the region, and with a small Turkic group in the southeast, near Küküllő and Olt rivers. The absence of Romanian-derived river-names confirms that the Romanians arrived after the Slavs, Hungarians, and Germans. The Romanians borrowed river-names from the Slavs, Hungarians and Germans. The ancient Transylvanian river names were adopted into Romanian through the linguistic mediation of the Slavs, Hungarians, or Germans.[90]
According to Romanian historiography, the uninterrupted presence of a Romanized population in Transylvania is proven by archaeological evidence, including artefacts bearing Christian symbolism, hoards of bronze Roman coins and Roman-style pottery.[195][196] Also, the preservation of river names from Antiquity until today suggests those names were uninterruptedly transmitted from the Dacians to the Romans, and then to the Daco-Romans.[197] Some rivers names, such the development of Criș from ancient Crisius would be in line with the phonetical evolution of Romanian.[198] The adoption of the Slavic names by the Romanians in cases when a settlement bears parallel Hungarian or German and Slavic names proves that the Romanians and the Slavs had lived side by side in the same settlements already before the arrival of the Hungarians in the late 9th century.[199]
According to Hungarian historiography, the presence of Slavs is confirmed by archaeology, but no distinctive trace of Romanians had been found in Transylvania at the time of the Hungarian conquest.[90]
According to Martyn Rady, the sources before the 13th century do not contain references to Vlachs (Romanians) anywhere in Hungary and Transylvania or in Wallachia. The sources describe Wallachia as a largely uninhabited forest until that time. It is likely that a Romanian population lived in the region, although it is impossible to determine its size. In Hunyad county, linguistic evidence suggests a Romanian presence from at least the 11th century. However, it could be possible, that the sudden appearance of Vlachs in the Hungarian historical record around 1200 was due to Romanian immigration from the Balkan, that Hungarian historians universally maintain, or show the new political significance assigning to the Romanian chieftains of Transylvania and the Lower Danube. The response of the Hungarian kings to the settlement of Vlachs and Cumans on the Lower Danube shows how seriously they viewed it, the first action of Hungarian rulers was establishing a bishopric over the region and urging the Pope to send missions aimed to convert the newcomers from paganism and from the Orthodox rite.[161]
According to Jean W. Sedlar, it cannot be ascertained from any extant documentary evidence how many Vlachs (Romanians) may have resided in Transylvania in the 11th century. The actual number of persons belonging to nationalities is at best guesswork, the Vlachs may have comprised two-thirds of Transylvania's population in 1241 on the eve of the Mongol invasion. Hungarian and Romanian historians attempted to prove that their ancestors were the first who settled in Transylvania. Romanians regard themselves as descendants of the tribes of Dacia intermingles with Roman settlers who allegedly have resided continuously in Transylvania. Hungarians claim that the Vlach population entered Transylvania from the Balkans only in the 12th century, this argument is supported by the origin of some Transylvanian place names from the time of the great Slavic migrations and by several Balkan influences on the Romanian language.[147]
Peter Jordan claims that already in the 13th century there must have been enough Transylvanian Romanians to populate Moldova and Wallachia by emigration right after their devastation by the Mongols and to give these regions a distinct Romanian character.[200]
The Regestrum Varadinense is a record of the trials that took place between 1208 and 1235 containing 711 place-names and 2500 personal names. According to Hungarian historians, it doesn't mention Romanian ones,[201][202] while Romanian historians find certain personal names like Fichur (Fecior), Qrud (Crudu) and Qucus (Cucu).[203]
In Hungarian historiography, the number of Romanians was small at the end of the 13th century in the
The list of Papal Tithes from 1332–1337 is the most important historical source for the ecclesiastical topography of medieval Kingdom of Hungary. According to this register the population of Transylvania was 330,720 around 1330.[206] It gives an important data about to the ethnic and religious division of the peoples living in medieval Transylvania during the reign of King Charles Robert of Hungary. At that time, according to list of Papal Tithes 310,000 (Catholic) Hungarians, 21,000 (Catholic) Saxons and 18,000 (Orthodox) Romanians lived in Transylvania.[207][208][209]
Transylvanian place-names were investigated by István Kniezsa, a Hungarian linguist and Slavist.[210][211] Until 1350, a total of 1,331 settlement names in the broad sense of Transylvania appear in sources that still exist today. Out of these 1,331 settlement names, 1,069 are Hungarian origin and 39 are Romanian origin. (The other place names are of Slavic or German origin.) Until the middle of the 14th century, 80.3% of the names of the settlements existing today are Hungarian origin, and 2.9% are of Romanian origin.[211] Among these settlement names of Romanian origin, in the list of Papal Tithes from 1332–1337, there is only one settlement mentioned in the source as Romanian: Căprioara (Kaprevár in Hungarian),[211] this Romanian place-name is the very first recorded Romanian toponym in the Kingdom of Hungary, including Transylvania.[212] Romanian linguist and Slavist Emil Petrovici finds that settlement names of Romanian-Slavic origin are more commonly found in places which Kniezsa indicates as only densely forested areas. Petrovici theorizes a retreat of the Romanian and Slavic population to hardly accessible areas during the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin, where several place-names derive. Petrovici identifies certain Hungarian place-names' origin differently. He views them as either Romanian-originated or Slavic-originated, but came to Hungarian through Romanian.[213]
The majority of the data about Romanians in Transylvania comes from the decades after the papal tithe list. In the document archive from the Kingdom of Hungary, there are 42 documents referring to Romanians between 1222 and 1331, and 439 documents between 1333 and 1400. According to Hungarian historiography, this corresponds to the fact that the Romanians gradually migrated to the Carpathian Basin, and a very significant phase of their immigration occurred only in the second half of the 14th century and also in the 15th century,[211] and the gradually Romanian immigration to Transylvania is also clear from the place names.[211]
Transylvanian settlements and the origin of their names (according to Hungarian historiography):[211][210] | |||
---|---|---|---|
Time frame | Number of Transylvanian settlements still existing today | Name of Hungarian origin | Name of Romanian origin |
Settlements in the sources until 1300 | 511 | 428 (83.8%) | 3 (0.6%) |
New settlements in the sources between 1301 and 1350 | 820 | 641 (78.2%) | 36 (4.4%) |
New settlements in the sources between 1351 and 1400 | 426 | 286 (67.1%) | 37 (8.7%) |
Total Transylvanian settlements until 1400 | 1757 | 1355 (77.1%) | 76 (4.3%) |
Romanian historiography holds a different view on this subject. Pop claims the papal tithes confirm the existence of 954 localities with Catholic parishes, out of his estimated 2100–2200 settlements existing in Transylvania during that time, meaning that the villages with Catholic parishes represented 43–45% of all Transylvanian settlements, and the Catholic population could have represented between 34 and 40% of the entire population, as it is certain that in many settlements with Catholic parishes an Orthodox population also lived.[214] Gyula Kristó however notices that in the Kingdom of Hungary only a part of the settlements had a Catholic parish and the absence of one is not directly correlated to the absence of a Catholic population, nor to the presence of an Orthodox church, and considering that, according to a Hungarian research, 16.4% of the villages in broader Transylvania had a Romanian or partial Romanian populations in 1400, it means it should have been impossible for them to make up two-thirds of the Transylvanian population in the 1332–1337 period.[211] Viorel Achim claims that in the 14th century, including at the time of Louis I, those belonging to the Orthodox Church in the Kingdom of Hungary were mostly exempted from paying the tithes. There were attempts by the Hungarian Catholic church to impose the tithes on the Orthodox population more vigorously, but those managed to be successful during Sigismund's reign.[215]
In a letter from 1356, Pope Innocent VI strengthened a previous bull addressed to the prior of the Dominican Order of Hungary, where he was instructed to preach the crusade "against all the inhabitants of Transylvania, Bosnia and Slavonia, which are heretics" (contra omnes Transilvanos, Bosnenses et Sclavonie, qui heretici fuerint). Pop says if Transylvania was heretical in the pope's view, a term which could also be used for Orthodox people by Catholics, the region had an overwhelming non-Hungarian majority.[216]
Historians Ioan Bolovan and Sorina-Paula Bolovan made multiple estimations about the population of Transylvania prior to the first census of 1869. Arguing that the Romanians were the majority of the population in 1288 at the first national assembly in Transylvania, in 1536 during the life of Nicolaus Olahus and Anton Verantius based on their works, in 1690 an absolute Romanian majority, that no significant demographic change happened between the Middle Ages and 1750 based on the Austrian fiscal conscription and that Romanians were the majority in 1773 based on the words of Emperor Joseph II. Moreover, they disagree with the Hungarian view of a massive migration from Wallachia and Moldavia in Transylvania because such a demographic change cannot be found in the Austrian fiscal conscription of 1750, which tracked newcomers over the previous decades, and that the Austrian administration explained concerns about Transylvanian Romanians leaving for Wallachia and Moldavia, including Emperor Joseph II.[217]
Pope Pius II noted in the 15th century book Europe that Transylvania "was populated in our age by three races: Germans, Székelys, and Vlachs", he also stated "you can find only a few men skilled in combat among the Transylvanians who do not know Hungarian".[219][220]
Laonikos Chalkokondyles writes about the inhabitants of Transylvania, in The Histories from the late 15th century: "These people speak the language of the Hungarians in part and in part also of the Wallachians, and they have the same customs and way of life of the Hungarians. This land is subject to the king of the Hungarians and receives as its lord whatever Hungarian the king appoints over them."[224]
Nicolaus Olahus, Primate of Hungary stated in the book Hungaria et Athila in 1536 that in Transylvania "Four nations of different origins live in it: Hungarians, Székelys, Saxons, and Vlachs" [225][131][132]
Antun Vrančić's work (Expeditionis Solymani in Moldaviam et Transsylvaniam libri duo. De situ Transsylvaniae, Moldaviae et Transalpinae liber tertius) is translated two different ways. In Pop's translation, he wrote that Transylvania "is inhabited by three nations – Székelys, Hungarians and Saxons; I should also add the Romanians who – even though they easily equal the others in number – have no liberties, no nobility and no rights of their own, except for a small number living in the District of Hátszeg, where it is believed that the capital of Decebalus lay, and who were made nobles during the time of John Hunyadi, a native of that place, because they always took part tirelessly in the battles against the Turks",[226] while according to Károly Nyárády R., the proper translation of the first part of the sentence would be: "...I should also add the Romanians who – even though they easily equal any of the others in number..." ("adiungam tamen et Valacchos, qui quamlibet harum facile agnitudine aequant").[227] In fact, Romanian autonomies also existed in Fogaras, Temes and Máramaros.[228]
Ferrante Capeci writes in a letter to Claudio Aquaviva, which dates to 24 February 1584, about the inhabitants of Transylvania, claiming that "Transylvania is inhabited by three sorts of people, and all have distinct languages. The Vlachs, which are the oldest inhabitants and descend from Italians and Lombards. […] The other inhabitants are Hungarians who descend from the Huns and Scythians, hence a part of Transylvania is called Scitulia, which today with a corrupted word, as some want, they say Siculia. The third inhabitants are Saxon Germans, who came there in the time of Charlemagne and still retain the Saxon language, although very depraved; they also speak Hungarian."[229][230]
According to George W. White, in 1600 the Romanian inhabitants were primarily peasants, comprising more than 60 percent of the population.[178]
In Letopisețul Țării Moldovei (1642–1647), the Moldavian chronicler Grigore Ureche notices that "Transylvania is more spread out by Romanians than by Hungarians".[231][232]
Around 1650, Vasile Lupu in a letter written to the Sultan attests that the number of Romanians are more than the one-third of the population.[233][234]
In 1666, Johannes Tröster stated in his book Das Alt- und Neu-Teutsche Dacia that Romanians in Transylvania "are so numerous that almost outnumber Hungarians and Germans" living there.[232][235]
Evliya Çelebi (1611–1682) was an Ottoman explorer who traveled through the territory of the Ottoman Empire and neighboring lands over a period of forty years, recording his commentary in a travelogue called the Seyahatnâme "Book of Travel". His trip to Hungary was between 1660 and 1666. The Transylvanian's state of development in the 17th century was so good, that it was an attraction to strangers longing for its territory. Evliya Çelebi writes this in his book that the Romanian serfs move en masse to Transylvania because of the extreme ruthlessness of the rulers of Romanian lands. The Romanians say there is justice, legal order, and low taxes in Transylvania.[233]
In Wallachia the beys were very tyrannical over them, therefore these rayahs saying: "Let justice be justice", all moved to Transylvania and pay one gold tribute to the king and they have no other duties.
In 1684, Miron Costin wrote in his work Istoria în versuri polone despre Țara Moldovei și Munteniei: "To this day, they (Romanians) are more numerous than Hungarians, starting from Bačka of the Serbs of Temes, all over the Mureș, in Hațeg, around Bălgrad, where the princes live, in the Olt country and all over Maramureș".[232][238]
In 1702 Andreas Freyberger wrote: "the Romanians are spread throughout all Transylvania, even in Szekelyland, and the land of the seats of the Saxons. There is no village, no market, no suburb, that doesn't have its own Romanians."[232]
According to an official estimates made by the Austrian administrative authority (Verwaltungsgericht) dating from 1712–1713, the ethnic distribution of the population in Transylvania is as follows: 47% Hungarians, 34% Romanians, 19%, Saxons.[239]
Andreas Teutsch (1669-1730) writes in his Historia Regni sive Principatus Transylvaniae that the Vlachs form the most numerous ethnic group and that all Transylvanian writers consider them to be descendants from Roman colonists in Dacia.[235][240]
In Benedek Jancsó's estimation there were 150,000 Hungarians (~30%), 100,000 Saxons (~20%) and 250,000 Romanians (~50%) out of 500,000 people in Transylvania at the beginning of the 18th century.[241] Official censuses with information on Transylvania's ethnic composition have been conducted since the 18th century. On May 1, 1784, Joseph II called for a census of the empire, including Transylvania. The data were published in 1787; however, this census showed only the overall population.[242]
Saxon pastor and commissioned of the Austrian authorities during the Hungarian War of Independence, Stephan Ludwig Roth said using Romanian is how a Hungarian and a German-speaker communicate with each other. He praised the great sounding of the language and its "Latin spirit".[243]
The first official census in Transylvania in which a distinction was made between nationalities (distinction made on the basis of mother tongue) was made by the Austro-Hungarian authorities in 1869, counting 59,0% Romanians, 24,9% Hungarians and 11,9% Germans out of a total population of 4.224.436 people.
For the period before this year there are only estimates of the proportions of various ethnic groups in Transylvania. Thus, Fényes Elek, a Hungarian statistician from the 19th century, estimated in 1842 that the population of Transylvania in the years 1830–1840 was composed of 62.3% Romanians and 23.3% Hungarians.[244]
Between 1880 and 1910, the census system in Austria-Hungary was based on first language used for communication.[245] Before 1880, Jews were counted as an ethnic group; later, they were counted according to their first language, and the majority (75.7%) of the Jewish population reported Hungarian as their primary language, so they were counted as ethnically Hungarian in the censuses.
The data recorded in all estimates and censuses is presented in the table below.
Year | Total | Romanians | Hungarians | Germans | Székelys[a] | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1241[b] | - | ~66% | - | - | - | Estimation by Jean W. Sedlar, the actual number of persons belonging to nationalities is at best guesswork[147] |
1301–1308[b] | 349,000 | 5.1% | 88.8% | 6.0% | - | Estimation by Lajos Tamás based on the List of Papal Tithes from 1332 to 1337[208][207] |
1437 | - | >50% | - | - | - | Estimation by Vlad Georgescu[247] |
1495[b] | 454,000-516,045 | 22% | 55,2% | 22% | - | Estimation by Kubinyi András[248] and Károly Kocsis & Eszter Kocsis-Hodosi[249] |
1500 | ~1,000,000 | - | - | - | - | Estimation by Bogdan Murgescu[250] |
1500[b] | - | 24% | 47% | 16% | 13% | Estimation by Elemér Mályusz (1898–1989)[251] |
1549–1551 | - | >50% | - | - | - | Estimation by Ioan-Aurel Pop, Ioan Bolovan, and Sorina-Paula Bolovan, based on Antun Vrančić's (Anton Verantius) writings[217][252] |
- | >25% | <=25% | <=25% | <=25% | Estimation[227] by Károly Nyárády R. based on Antun Vrančić's work[253] | |
1571[b] | 955,000 | 29.3% | 52.3% | 9.4% | - | Estimation by Akadémiai Kiadó[254] |
1595[b] | 670,000 | ~28.4% | 52,2% | 18,8% | - | Estimation by Károly Kocsis & Eszter Kocsis-Hodosi[249] |
1600[b] | - | ~60% | - | - | Estimation by George W. White[178] | |
1650[b] | - | >33,33% | - | - | Estimation by Vasile Lupu[233][234] | |
1700[b] | ~500,000 | ~50% | ~30% | ~20% | - | Estimation by Benedek Jancsó (1854–1930)[241] |
1700 | ~800,000–865,000 | - | Estimation by Zsolt Trócsányi[255] | |||
1702 | - | >50% | - | - | - | Estimation by Ioan and Sorina-Paula Bolovan, based on Andreas Freyberger's writings[217] |
1712–1713 | ~34% | ~47% | ~19% | - | An official estimate by the Austrian administrative authority (Verwaltungsgericht) dating from 1712–1713[239] | |
1720[b] | 806,221 | 49,6% | 37,2% | 12,2% | - | Estimation by Károly Kocsis & Eszter Kocsis-Hodosi[256] |
1721 | - | 48,28% | 36.09% | 15.62% | - | Estimation by Ignác Acsády[257] |
1730[b] | ~725,000 | 57.9% | 26.2% | 15.1% | - | Austrian statistics |
1765[b] | ~1,000,000 | 55.9% | 26% | 12% | - | Estimation by Bálint Hóman and Gyula Szekfü (1883–1955)[246] |
1773[b][258] | 1,066,017 | 63.5% | 24.2% | 12.3% | - | |
1784[b] | 1,440,986 | - | - | - | - | |
1784–1787 | 2,489,147 | 63.5% | 24.1% | 12.4% | - | Austrian statistics[247] |
1790[b][259] | 1,465,000 | 50.8% | 30.4% | - | - | |
1835[b] | - | 62.3% | 23.3% | - | - | |
1850[b] | 2,073,372 | 59.1% | 25.9% | 9.3% | - | |
1850[b] | 1,823,212 | 57.2% | 26.7% | 10.5% | - | 1850/51. census[260] |
1869 | 4,224,436 | 59.0% | 24.9% | 11.9% | - | Austro-Hungarian population census |
1880 | 4,032,851 | 57.0% | 25.9% | 12.5% | - | Austro-Hungarian population census (based on primary used language) |
1890 | 4,429,564 | 56.0% | 27.1% | 12.5% | - | Austro-Hungarian population census (based on primary used language) |
1900 | 4,840,722 | 55.2% | 29.4% | 11.9% | - | Austro-Hungarian population census (based on primary used language) |
1910 | 5,262,495 | 53.8% | 31.6% | 10.7% | - | Austro-Hungarian population census (based on primary used language) |
1919 | 5,208,345 | 57.3% | 25.5% | 10.6% | - | Romanian statistics |
1920 | 5,114,214 | 58.3% | 26.7% | 9.7% | - | Romanian statistics |
1930 | 5,548,363 | 57.8% | 24.4% | 9.8% | - | Romanian population census[261] |
1948 | 5,761,127 | 65.1% | 25.7% | 5.8% | - | Romanian population census (based on mother tongue)[262] |
1956 | 6,232,312 | 65.5% | 25.9% | 6.0% | - | Romanian population census |
1966 | 6,736,046 | 68.0% | 24.2% | 5.6% | - | Romanian population census |
1977 | 7,500,229 | 69.4% | 22.6% | 4.6% | - | Romanian population census |
1992 | 7,723,313 | 75.3% | 21.0% | 1.2% | - | Romanian population census |
2002 | 7,221,733 | 74.7% | 19.6% | 0.7% | - | Romanian population census |
2011 | 6,789,250 | 70.6% | 17.9% | 0.4% | - | Romanian population census For 378,298 inhabitants (5.57%) ethnicity was not available[263] |
2021 | 6,489,189 | 67.7% | 15.3% | 0.3% | - | Romanian population census For 743,807 inhabitants (11.5%) ethnicity was not available[264] |
Sources:[265][266][267][268] | ||||||
Footnotes:
|
Coat of arms of Transylvania
The first heraldic representations of Transylvania date from the 16th century. The Diet of 1659 codified the representation of the privileged nations (Unio Trium Nationum (Union of the Three Nations)) in Transylvania's coat of arms. It depicted a black eagle (Turul) on a blue background, representing the Hungarians, the Sun and the Moon representing the Székelys, and seven red towers on a yellow background representing the seven fortified cities of the Transylvanian Saxons.[269] The flag and coat of arms of Transylvania were granted by Queen Maria Theresa in 1765, when she established a Grand Principality within the Habsburg monarchy.
In 1596, Levinus Hulsius created a coat of arms for Transylvania, consisting of a shield with a rising eagle in the upper field and seven hills with towers on top in the lower field. He published it in his work "Chronologia", issued in Nuremberg the same year.[270] The seal from 1597 of Sigismund Báthory, Prince of Transylvania, reproduced the new coat of arms with some slight changes: in the upper field the eagle was flanked by a sun and a moon and in the lower field the hills were replaced by simple towers. The coat of arms of Sigismund Báthory beside the coat of arms of the Báthory family, included the Transylvanian, Wallachia and Moldavian coat of arms, he used the title Prince of Transylvania, Wallachia and Moldavia. A short-lived heraldic representation of Transylvania is found on the seal of Michael the Brave. Besides the Wallachian eagle and the Moldavian aurochs, Transylvania is represented by two lions holding a sword standing on seven hills. Hungarian Transylvanian princes used the symbols of the Transylvanian coat of arms usually with the Hungarian coat of arms since the 16th century because Transylvanian princes maintained their claims to the throne of the Kingdom of Hungary.
While neither symbol has official status in present-day Romania, the Transylvanian coat of arms is marshalled within the national Coat of arms of Romania, it was also a component of the Coat of arms of Hungary.
-
Coat of arms of John Sigismund Zápolya, King of Hungary (1540–1551) and Prince of Transylvania (1570-1571)
-
Coat of arms of Transylvania by Levinus Hulsius (1596)
-
Coat of arm of Sigismund Báthory, Prince of Transylvania (1586–1598, 1598–1599, 1601–1602)
-
Seal of Michael the Brave during his personal union of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania (1599–1600)
-
Coat of arms ofPrincess of Transylvania(1642–1657, 1657–1658, 1659–1660)
-
Coat of arms of George I Rákóczi, Prince of Transylvania (1630-1648)
-
Coat of arms of Transylvania by Hristofor Žefarović (1741)
-
Coat of arms of Transylvania by Hugo Gerard Ströhl
-
Coat of arms of Transylvania (1765)
-
Coat of arms of Transylvania in an Austrian coat of arms (1850)
-
Coat of arms of Transylvania in the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Hungary (1867–1915)
-
Coat of arms of Transylvania in the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Hungary (1867–1915)
-
Coat of arms of Transylvania in the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Hungary (1915–1918)
-
Coat of arms of Transylvania in the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Romania (1921–1947)
-
Coat of arms of Transylvania in the coat of arms of Romania (2016)
See also
- Prehistory of Transylvania
- The Ancient History of Transylvania
- History of Romania
- History of Cluj-Napoca
- History of Hungary
- Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages
- List of Transylvanian rulers
- History of the Székely people
- Aftermath of World War I
- Austria-Hungary
- Celts in Transylvania
- Dacia
- Origin of the Romanians
- Transylvanian School
- ASTRA
- Avram Iancu
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{{cite book}}
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- ^ Achim, Viorel (2008). Considerations on King Louis I Policy Towards the Orthodox with Special Reference to the Tithe Issue. Editura Istros. p. 77.
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- ^ a b c Transilvania pana la Primul Razboi Mondial
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nostra aetate tres incolunt gentes: Teutones, Siculi et Valachi" "paucos tamen apud Transsylvanos invenias viros exercitatos Hungaricae linguae nescios
- ^ Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini: Europe (ch. 2.14.), p. 64.
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In hac sunt quatuor diverso genere nationes: Hungari, Siculi, Saxones, Walachi
- ISBN 978-973-7784-12-4
- ^ a b Nyárády R. Károly – Erdély népesedéstörténete c. kéziratos munkájábol. Megjelent: A Központi Statisztikai Hivatal Népességtudományi Kutató Intézetenek történeti demográfiai füzetei. 3. sz. Budapest, 1987. 7–55. p., Erdélyi Múzeum. LIX, 1997. 1–2. füz. 1–39. p.
- )
- ^ Holban, Maria (1971). Călători străini despre Țările Române (PDF) (in Romanian). Vol. 3. Bucharest: Editura Științifică. pp. 98–99. Retrieved June 4, 2023.
- ^ "È la Transilvania habitata da tre sorti di persone, et tutti hanno lingue distinte. Valachi, i quali sono i più antichi habitatori e descendono da italiani e longobardi. Onde hanno lingua simile all' italiana moderna, tal che fra pochi mesi si potrebbe bene imparar la loro lingua; come essi anco facilmente imparano l'italiano. Anzi essi si chiamano romaneschi e vogliono molti che erano mandati qui quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli de quali abonda questo regno. Gli altri habitatori sono ungheri venuti da gl'unni et sciti, onde una parte della Transilvania si chiama Scitulia, che hoggi con vocabolo corrotto, come alcuni vogliono, dicono Siculia. I terzi habitatori sono germani sassoni venuti al tempo di Carlo Magno i quali ancora ritengono la lingua sassonica, se ben molto depravata; parlano ancor Unghero." Ferrante Capeci, in: László Lukacs S.J., Documenta romana Historiae Societatis Jesu in regnis olim corona hungarica unitis, III (1581–1586), Romae 1967, p. 403
- ^ "În țara Ardealului nu lăcuiescu numai unguri, ce și sași peste samă de mulți și români peste tot locul, de mai multu-i țara lățită de români decât de unguri." cited from Grigore Ureche, Letopisețul Țării Moldovei, pp. 133–134
- ^ a b c d Louis Roman (1999). "Românii transilvăneni în secolele XVI -XVII: o abordare demoistorică". Revista Istorică, tomul IX, nr. 3-4 (in Romanian). Editura Academiei Române. pp. 188, 192.
- ^ ISBN 963-9289-60-4.
- ^ a b Sándor, Szilágyi (1890). Erdély és az északkeleti háború – Levelek és okiratok (Transylvania and the Northeastern War – Letters and Diplomas) (PDF) (in Latin). Budapest. pp. 255–256.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ a b Armbruster, Adolf (1980). Dacoromano-Saxonica: cronicari români despre sași: românii în cronica săsească (in Romanian). Bucharest. pp. 112, 114, 127.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Çelebi, Evliya. Evlia Celebi Turkish world traveler's trips to Hungary (in Turkish).
- ^ Karácson, Imre. Seyahatnâme (PDF) (in Hungarian).
- ^ Petre P. Panaitescu (1929). Miron Costin – Istorie în versuri polone despre Moldova și Țara Românească, Memoriile Secțiunii Istorice, Seria III, Tomul X (in Romanian). Romanian Academy. pp. 375, 466–467.
- ^ ISBN 0-88033-491-6.
- ^ "Die Walachen sind an der Zahl die stärksten und halten alle Siebenbürgische Scribenten davon, dass dieselben von den Römischen Colonien, als Kayser Trajanus der Gothen König Deceballum uberwunden und ganz Dacien sich unterhänig gemacht, allhier in Siebenbürgen blieben." Andreas Teutsch, "Historia Regni sive Principatus Transylvaniae."
- ^ a b "Demographic Changes". Mek.niif.hu. Retrieved July 10, 2017.
- ^ "Hungarian History". Hungarian-history.hu. Archived from the original on February 2, 2017. Retrieved July 10, 2017.
- ^ Stephan Ludwig Roth; Der Sprachkampf in Siebenbürgen. Eine Beleuchtung de Woher und Wohin? p. 47-48
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- ^ a b "Hungarian History". Hungarian-history.hu. Archived from the original on August 23, 2017. Retrieved July 10, 2017.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8142-0511-2.
- ^ Population density for Hungary, as a whole, must have been between 9.5-10.8 persons per square km (Transylvania 8.3-9.4; Slavonia 13.4-15.2). The counties in southern Transdanubia, Slavonia and Syrmia formed a continuous area of high population density. Counties with the lowest density of population were to be found in the hilly, forested areas of the country or on the Great Plain Kubinyi, Andras (1996). "A Magyar Királyság népessége a 15. század végén (Population of the Kingdom of Hungary at the end of 15th century)" (PDF). Történelmi Szemle (XXXVIII. 2-3): 135–161.
- ^ ISBN 963-7395-84-9.
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- ^ Mályusz Elemér: A magyarság és a nemzetiségek Mohács előtt. Magyar Művelődéstörténet. Bp. é.n. II. 123–124.
- ^ Pop, Ioan-Aurel (2010). Testimonies on the ethno-confessional structure of medieval Transylvania and Hungary : (9th–14th centuries) (PDF). Transylvanian review, an 2010, vol. 19, nr. supplement 1, p. 9-41. Retrieved December 1, 2017.
- ^ Antonius Wrancius: Expeditionis Solymani in Moldaviam et Transsylvaniam libri duo. De situ Transsylvaniae, Moldaviae et Transalpinae liber tertius.
- ^ Erdély rövid története, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1989, 238. o. – The short history of Transylvania, Akadémiai Kiadó, 1989 Budapest p. 238
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- ^ Acsády Ignác: Magyarország népessége a Pragamtica Sanctio korában, Magyar statisztikai közlemények 12. kötet – Ignác Acsády: The population of Hungary in the ages of the Pragmatica Sanction, Magyar statisztikai közlemények vol. 12.
- ^ "A Growing Population in the Grip of Underdeveloped Agriculture". Mek.niif.hu. Retrieved July 10, 2017.
- ^ Peter Rokai – Zoltan Đere – Tibor Pal – Aleksandar Kasaš, Istorija Mađara, Beograd, 2002, pages 376–377.
- ^ Erdély rövid története, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1989, 371. o. – The short history of Transylvania, Akadémiai Kiadó, 1989 Budapest p. 371.
- ^ Anuarul statistic al României 1937 și 1938 pp. 58–63
- ^ Populatia RPR la 25 ianuarie 1948, pp. 37–41
- ^ "Rezultate definitive RPL 2011 – Populația stabilă după etnie – județe, municipii, orașe, comune". Archived from the original on January 18, 2016. Retrieved August 5, 2019.
- ^ "Rezultate definitive: Caracteristici etno-culturale demografice" (in Romanian). Retrieved March 13, 2024.
- ^ Árpád Varga E., Hungarians in Transylvania between 1870 and 1995, Original title: Erdély magyar népessége 1870–1995 között, Magyar Kisebbség 3–4, 1998 (New series IV), pp. 331–407. Translation by Tamás Sályi, Teleki László Foundation, Budapest, 1999
- ^ Rudolf Poledna, François Ruegg, Călin Rus, Interculturalitate, Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca, 2002. p. 160.
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- Spinei, Victor (2003). The Great Migrations in the East and South East of Europe from the Ninth to the Thirteenth Century. Translated by Dana Badulescu. Romanian Cultural Institute. ISBN 978-973-85894-5-2.
- Kristó, Gyula (2003). Early Transylvania (895–1324). Budapest: Lucidus. ISBN 963-9465-12-7.
- Sălăgean, Tudor (2005). "Romanian Society in the Early Middle Ages (9th–14th Centuries AD)". In Pop, Ioan-Aurel; Bolovan, Ioan (eds.). History of Romania: Compendium. Romanian Cultural Institute (Center for Transylvanian Studies). pp. 133–207. ISBN 978-973-7784-12-4.
- Jefferson, John (2012). The Holy Wars of King Wladislas and Sultan Murad: The Ottoman-Christian Conflict from 1438–1444. Leiden: Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-21904-5.