History of Christianity in Romania
History of Romania |
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The history of Christianity in Romania began within the
The vast majority of
The oldest proof that an Orthodox church hierarchy existed among the Romanians north of the river
The
Pre-Christian religions
The religion of the
Modern
The province of "Dacia Traiana" was dissolved in the 270s.
Origin of the Romanians' Christianity
The oldest proof that an Orthodox church hierarchy existed among the Romanians north of the river
The core religious vocabulary of the Romanian language originated from Latin.[12] Christian words that have been preserved from Latin include a boteza ("to baptize"), Paște ("Easter"),[13] preot ("priest"),[14] and cruce ("cross").[15][16] Some words, such as biserică ("church", from basilica) and Dumnezeu ("God", from Domine Deus), are independent of their synonyms in other Romance languages.[10][12][15]
The exclusive presence in Romanian language of Latin vocabulary for concepts of
some examples are:- altar(ium) – altar ("altar"),
- baptisare – a boteza ("to baptize"),
- cantare, canticum – cântare, cântec ("sing", "song"),
- crux, cruce – cruce ("cross"),
- communicare ("communicate") – a cumineca ("to receive or give Communion/Eucharist"),
- commendare ("commend, commit") – a comânda ("to sacrifice; to remember or pray for someone who died"),
- credere – a crede ("to believe"),
- credentia – credință ("faith, belief"),
- christianus – creștin ("Christian"),
- draco – drac ("evil", "devil"),
- Floralia ("ancient festival") – Florii ("Palm Sunday"),
- ieiunare – a ajuna ("to fast"),
- ieiunus - ajun ("fast")
- ligare:
- carnem ligare ("tie/bind meat") – cârnelegi, cârneleagă ("penultimate week of Advent fast when meat can be eaten")
- caseum ligare ("tie/bind cheese")– câșlegi,
- luminaria – lumânare ("candle"),
- lex, lege – lege ("law, faith"),
- martyr – martor ("witness"),
- monumentum – mormânt ("tomb"),
- presbyter – preut (preot) ("priest"),
- paganus – păgân ("pagan"),
- pervigilium, pervigilare – priveghi, priveghea ("wake", "to keep watch/vigil for a wake"),
- rogare, rogatio(ne) – ruga, rugăciune (rugă) ("to pray", "praying"),
- quadragesima – păresimi ("Lent"),
- sanctus – sânt (sfânt) ("saint"),
- scriptura – scriptură ("scripture, writing"),
- *sufflitus – suflet ("soul, spirit")
- thymiama – tămâie ("incense"),
- turma – turmă ("flock"), etc.[17][18]
The same is true for the Christian denominations of the main Christian holidays: Crăciun ("
The Romanian language also adopted many Slavic religious terms.
Several theories exist regarding the origin of Christianity in Romania.[28][29][30] Those who think that the Romanians descended from the inhabitants of "Dacia Traiana" suggest that the spread of Christianity coincided with the formation of the Romanian nation.[12][31] Their ancestors' Romanization and Christianization, a direct result of the contact between the native Dacians and the Roman colonists, lasted for several centuries.[12][32] According to historian Ioan-Aurel Pop, Romanians were the first to adopt Christianity among the peoples who now inhabit the territories bordering Romania.[33] They adopted Slavonic liturgy when it was introduced in the neighboring First Bulgarian Empire and Kievan Rus' in the 9th and 10th centuries.[34] According to a concurring scholarly theory, the Romanians' ancestors turned to Christianity in the provinces to the south of the Danube (in present-day Bulgaria and Serbia) after it was legalized throughout the Roman Empire in 313.[35] They adopted the Slavonic liturgy during the First Bulgarian Empire before their migration to the territory of modern Romania began in the 11th or 12th century.[36]
Roman times
![Crypt at Niculițel](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Martyrsinscription.jpg/200px-Martyrsinscription.jpg)
![Crypt at Niculițel](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Tombofmartyrs.jpg/200px-Tombofmartyrs.jpg)
The existence of Christian communities in Dacia Traiana is disputed.
In Scythia Minor, a large number of Christians were
Clerics from Scythia Minor were involved in the theological controversies debated at the
Early Middle Ages
East Roman Empire period
Most Christian objects from the 4th to 6th centuries found in the former province of Dacia Traiana were imported from the Roman Empire.
The spread of Christianity in the former Roman Dacia is connected to the Constantinian reconquest of parts of the former Roman Dacia.[58] At the Roman fortress of Sucidava (Olt county) have been discovered the largest number of early Christian finds in the former Roman Dacia, most of them dating from the 4th century. Other objects bearing probable Christian symbols were found as far as Alba Iulia, Dej, Lipova, Deva, Cluj-Napoca, Zlatna.[59]
Dacia Traiana was dominated by "
Following the collapse of the Hunnic Empire in 454, the Gepids "ruled as victors over the extent of all Dacia".[69][70] A gold ring from a 5th-century grave at Apahida is ornamented with crosses.[71] Another ring from the grave bears the inscription "OMHARIVS", probably in reference to Omharus, one of the known Gepid kings.[72] The Gepidic kingdom was annihilated in 567–568 by the Avars.[73]
The reign of Justinian I (527-565) was a period of military and religious expansion of the Eastern Roman Empire across the Danube. For this purpose, the emperor rebuilt some fortresses on the northern bank of the river, such as Drobeta, Lederata, Zernes-Dierna, Sucidava, Viminacium etc.[74] In "Novella XI", the foundation act of the Justiniana Prima Archbishopric, from 535, in the arguments that motivate the establishment of this prefecture, it is affirmed that Empire has expanded to such an extent that Roman towns are situated on both banks of the Danube.[75][76]
The presence of Christians among the "barbarians" has been well documented.[77] Theophylact Simocatta wrote of a Gepid who "had once long before been of the Christian religion".[77] The author of the Strategikon documented Romans among the Sclavenes, and some of those Romans may have been Christians as well.[77] The presence and proselytism of these Christians does not go so far as to explain how artifacts with Christian symbolism appeared on sites to the south and east of the Carpathians in the 560s.[78] Such artifacts have been found at Botoșana and Dulceanca.[79] Casting molds for pectoral crosses were found in the space around Eastern and Southern Carpathian mountains, starting with the 6th century.[80]
Outer-Carpathian regions and the Balkans
Burial assemblages found in 8th-century cemeteries to the south and east of the Carpathians, for instance at Castelu, prove that local communities practiced cremation[81][82] The idea that local Christians incorporating pre-Christian practices can also be assumed among those who cremated their dead is a matter of debate among historians.[83][84] Cremation was replaced by inhumation by the beginning of the 11th century.[81][85]
For the period from the 9th to 11th centuries, in the regions from the East of Carpathians there are known more than 52 discoveries of Christian origin (moulds, brackets, pendants, groundsels, pottery with Christian signs, rings with Christian signs), many of them locally made; some of these discoveries and the content and the orientation of graves show that local people practised the Christian burial ceremony before the Christianization of Bulgars and Slavs.[86]
The territories between the Lower Danube and the Carpathians were incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire by the first half of the 9th century.[87] Boris I (852–889) was the first Bulgarian ruler to accept Christianity, in 863.[88] By that time differences between the Eastern and the Western branches of Christianity had grown significantly.[89] Boris I allowed the members of the Eastern Orthodox clergy to enter his country in 864, and the Bulgarian Orthodox Church adopted the Bulgarian alphabet in 893.[90][91] An inscription in Mircea Vodă from 943 is the earliest example of the use of Cyrillic script in Romania.[92]
The First Bulgarian Empire was conquered by the Byzantines under Basil II (976–1025).[93] He soon revived the Metropolitan See of Scythia Minor at Constanța, but this put Christian Bulgarians under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of Ohrid.[94][95] The Metropolitan See of Moesia was reestablished in Dristra (now Silistra, Bulgaria) in the 1040s when a mission of mass evangelization was dispatched among the Pechenegs who had settled in the Byzantine Empire.[96][97] The Metropolitan See of Dristra was taken over by the bishop of Vicina in the 1260s.[98][99]
The Vlachs living in
Catholic missionaries among the
As I was informed, there are certain people within the Cuman bishopric named Vlachs, who although calling themselves Christians, gather various rites and customs in one religion and do things that are alien to this name. For disregarding the Roman Church, they receive all the sacraments not from our venerable brother, the Cuman bishop, who is the diocesan of that territory, but from some pseudo-bishops of the Greek rite.
Intra-Carpathian regions
Christian objects disappeared in Transylvania after the 7th century.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Streisangeorgiu_HD.SE.jpg/200px-Streisangeorgiu_HD.SE.jpg)
The second-in-command of the Hungarian tribal federation, known as the
Large cemeteries developed around churches after church officials insisted on churchyard burials.
Middle Ages
Orthodox Church in the intra-Carpathian regions
![Church at Densuș](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Densus.bis_sf_nicolae.SE.jpg/200px-Densus.bis_sf_nicolae.SE.jpg)
Although the Council of Buda prohibited the
Local Orthodox hierarchies were often under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Sees of Wallachia and Moldavia by the late 14th century.[139] For instance, the Metropolitan of Wallachia also styled himself "Exarch of all Hungary and the borderlands" in 1401.[139][140] Orthodox monasteries in Romania, including Șcheii Brașovului, were centers of Slavonic writing.[141] The Bible was first translated into Romanian by monks in Maramureș during the 15th century.[142]
In 1356, Pope Innocent VI strengthened a previous bull addressed to the prior of the Dominican Order of Hungary, where he was instructed to preach the crusade “against all the inhabitants of Transylvania, Bosnia and Slavonia, which are heretics” (contra omnes Transilvanos, Bosnenses et Sclavonie, qui heretici fuerint).[143]
Treatment of Orthodox Christians worsened under
A special
Although the monarchs only insisted on the conversion of the Romanians living in the southern borderlands, many Romanian
Orthodox Church in Moldavia and Wallachia
![Curtea de Argeș Cathedral](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Man_Curtea_de_Arges.SV.jpg/200px-Man_Curtea_de_Arges.SV.jpg)
An unknown
A second principality,
![Voroneț Monastery](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/%D7%90%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%99_%D7%98%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%A8_094.jpg/200px-%D7%90%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%99_%D7%98%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%A8_094.jpg)
From the second half of the 14th century, Romanian princes sponsored the monasteries of
Many monasteries, such as
The extensive lands owned by monasteries made the monasteries a significant political and economic force.[182] Many of these monasteries also owned Romani and Tatar slaves.[183] Monastic institutions enjoyed fiscal privileges, including an exemption from taxes, although 16th-century monarchs occasionally tried to seize monastic assets.[184]
Wallachia and Moldavia maintained their autonomous status, though the princes were obliged to pay a yearly tax to the sultans starting during the 15th century.[185] Dobruja was annexed in 1417 by the Ottoman Empire, and the Ottomans also occupied parts of southern Moldavia in 1484, and Proilavia (now Brăila) in 1540.[185][186] These territories were under the jurisdiction of the metropolitans of Dristra and Proilavia for several centuries following the annexation.[161]
Other denominations
![Gothic Church in Cluj](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Piata_Unirii_Cluj-Napoca.jpg/200px-Piata_Unirii_Cluj-Napoca.jpg)
The Diocese of Cumania was destroyed during the Mongol invasion of 1241–1242.[111][188] After this, Catholic missions to the East were carried on by the Franciscans.[188] For example, Pope Nicholas IV sent Franciscan missionaries to the "country of the Vlachs" in 1288.[189] In the 14th and 15th centuries new Catholic dioceses were established in the territories to the east and south of the Carpathians, mainly due to the presence of Hungarian and Saxon colonists.[190] Local Romanians also sent a complaint to the Holy See in 1374 demanding a Romanian-speaking bishop.[191] Alexander the Good of Moldavia (1400–1432) also founded an Armenian bishopric in Suceava in 1401.[163][192] In Moldavia, however, many Catholic believers were forced to convert to Orthodoxy under Ștefan VI Rareș (1551–1552) and Alexandru Lăpușneanu (1552–1561).[193]
In the Kingdom of Hungary
Reformation
First the Hussite movement for religious reform began in Transylvania in the 1430s.[203][204] Many of the Hussites moved to Moldavia, the only state in Europe outside Bohemia where they remained free of persecution.[148][163]
The earliest evidence that Lutheran teachings "were known and followed" in Transylvania is a royal letter written to the town council of Sibiu in 1524.
Calvinist preachers first became active in Oradea in the early 1550s.[210] The Diet recognized the existence of two distinct Protestant churches in 1564 after the Saxon and Hungarian clergy had failed to agree on the contested points of theology, such as the nature of communion services.[211][212] The government also exerted pressure on the Romanians in order to change their faith.[150] The Diet of 1566 decreed that a Romanian Calvinist bishop, Gheorghe of Sîngeorgiu, be their sole religious leader.[153]
A faction of Hungarian preachers raised doubts over the doctrine of the Trinity in the 1560s.[211] In a decade Cluj became the center of the Unitarian movement.[213][214][215] The four "received religions" was recognized in 1568 by the Diet of Turda which also gave ministers the right to teach according to their own understanding of Christianity.[216] Although a ban on further religious innovation was enacted in 1572, many Székelys turned to Sabbatarianism in the 1580s.[217]
The process of giving up pre-Reformation traditions was extremely slow in Transylvania.[218] Although all or some of the images were eliminated in the churches, sacred vessels were kept.[218] Protestant denominations also kept the strict observance of holidays and fasting periods.[219]
Early Modern and Modern Times
Orthodox Church in Moldavia, Wallachia, and Romania
![Metropolitan Dosofter](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Dosoftei.jpg/200px-Dosoftei.jpg)
The use of Romanian in church service was first introduced in Wallachia under
The two principalities suffered the highest degree of Ottoman exploitation during the "
A new archbishopric subordinated to the Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church was created in Chișinău when the Russian Empire annexed Bessarabia in 1812.[229] The Russian authorities soon forbade its archbishop from having any connections with the Orthodox Church in the Romanian principalities.[229]
Romanian society embarked upon a rapid development following the reinstallation of native princes in 1821.[230][231] For instance, the Romani slaves owned by the monasteries were freed in Moldavia in 1844, and in Wallachia in 1847.[232] The two principalities were united under Alexandru Ioan Cuza (1859–1866), and the new state adopted the name of Romania in 1862.[233] In his reign, the estates of the monasteries were nationalized.[234][235][236] He also endorsed the use of Romanian in the liturgy, and replaced the Cyrillic alphabet with the Romanian alphabet.[237] In 1860, the first Faculty of Orthodox Theology was founded at the University of Iași.[238]
The Orthodox churches of the former principalities, the
Following the
The
Orthodox Church in Transylvania and the Habsburg Empire
![Andrei Șaguna](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Saguna%2C_mitropolit.jpg/200px-Saguna%2C_mitropolit.jpg)
The 16th-century Calvinist princes of Transylvania insisted on the Orthodox clergy's unconditional subordination to the Calvinist
The first movement for the reestablishment of the Orthodox Church was initiated in 1744 by Visarion Sarai, a Serbian monk.[251] The monk Sofronie organized Romanian peasants to demand a Serbian Orthodox bishop in 1759–1760.[252] In 1761 the government consented to the establishment of an Orthodox diocese in Sibiu under the jurisdiction of the Serbian Metropolitan of Sremski Karlovci.[230][253][254] The Serbian Metropolitan was also granted authority, in 1781, over the diocese of Cernăuți (now Chernivtsi, Ukraine) in Bukovina that had been annexed from Moldavia by the Habsburg Empire.[255]
In 1848 Andrei Șaguna became the bishop of Sibiu and worked to free the local Orthodox Church from the control of the Serbian Metropolitan.[228][246] He succeeded in 1864, when a separate Orthodox Church with its Metropolitan See in Sibiu was established with the consent of the government.[255][256] In the second half of the 19th century, the local Romanian Orthodox Church supervised the activity of four high schools, and over 2,700 elementary schools.[228] The Orthodox Church in Bukovina also became independent of the Serbian Metropolitan in 1873.[255] A Faculty of Orthodox Theology was founded in the University of Cernăuți in 1875.[228] However, many Romanian priests were deported or imprisoned for propagating the union of the lands inhabited by Romanians after Romania declared war on Austria–Hungary in 1916.[236][257]
Romanian Church united with Rome
After the Principality of Transylvania was annexed by the Habsburg Empire, the new Catholic rulers tried to attract the Romanians' support in order to strengthen their control over the principality governed by predominantly Protestant Estates.[258] For the Romanians, the Church Union proposed by the imperial court nurtured the hope that the central government would assist them in their conflicts with local authorities.[259]
The union of the local Romanian Orthodox Church with Rome was declared in Alba Iulia, after years of negotiations, in 1698 by Metropolitan Atanasie Anghel and thirty-eight archpriests.[260] This union was based on the four points adopted by the Council of Florence, including the recognition of papal primacy.[260][261][262] Atanasie Anghel lost his title of metropolitan and was re-ordained as a bishop subordinated to the archbishop of Esztergom in 1701.[230][263]
The Orthodox world considered the union with Rome as apostasy.[264] Metropolitan Theodosie of Wallachia referred to Atanasie Anghel as "the new Judas".[264] Since many of the local Romanians opposed the Church union, it also created discord among them.[230][264]
Uniate Romanians assumed a leading role in the struggle for the Romanians' political emancipation in Transylvania for the next century.
Other denominations
Calvinism was popular in Transylvania during the 17th century.[270] Over sixty Unitarian ministers were expelled from their parishes in the Székely Land in the 1620s due to the influence of Calvinist Church leaders.[271][272] Although Transylanian Diets also enacted anti-Sabbatarian decrees, Sabbatarian communities survived in some Székely villages, such as Bezid.[273]
![Unitarian Church, Cluj](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Biserica_Unitariana%2C_Cluj.jpg/200px-Biserica_Unitariana%2C_Cluj.jpg)
The Saxon communities' religious life was characterized by both differentiation from Calvinism, and by an increased number of worship services.
The Principality of Transylvania, following its integration into the Habsburg Empire, was administered according to the principles established by the Leopoldine Diploma of 1690, which confirmed the privileged status of the four "received religions".[280] In practice the new regime gave preference to the Roman Catholic Church.[281] Between 1711 and 1750, the apogee of the Counter-Reformation, the government ensured that Catholics would get preference in appointments to high offices.[281] The preeminent status of the Roman Catholic Church was not weakened under Joseph II (1780–1790), despite his issuance of the 1781 Edict of Tolerance.[282] Catholics who wished to convert to any of the other three "received religions" were still required to undergo an instruction.[282] The equal status of the Churches was not declared until the union of Transylvania with the Kingdom of Hungary in 1868.[283]
In the Kingdom of Romania, a new Roman Catholic archbishopric was organized in 1883 with its See in Bucharest.
Greater Romania
Following
The constitution adopted in 1923 declared that "differences of religious beliefs and denominations" do not constitute "an impediment either to the acquisition of political rights or to the free exercise thereof".[290] It also recognized two national churches by declaring the Romanian Orthodox Church as the dominant denomination and by according the Romanian Church united with Rome "priority over other denominations".[291] The 1928 Law of Cults granted a fully recognized status to seven more denominations, among them the Roman Catholic, the Armenian, the Reformed, the Lutheran, and the Unitarian Churches.[292]
All Orthodox hierarchs in the enlarged kingdom became members of the Holy Synod of the Romanian Orthodox Church in 1919.
In this period, the preservation of
Communist regime
According to the armistice signed between Romania and the Allied Powers in 1944, Romania lost Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union.[294] Consequently, the Orthodox dioceses in these territories were subordinated to the patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church.[300] In Romania, the Communist Party used the same tactics as in other Eastern European countries.[301] The Communist Party supported a coalition government, but in short time drove out all other parties from power.[301]
The 1948 Law on Religious Denominations formally upheld freedom of religion, but ambiguous stipulations obliged both priests and believers to conform to the constitution,
Although the Orthodox church was completely subordinated to the state through the appointment of patriarchs sympathetic to the Communists, over 1,700 Orthodox priests of the 9,000 Orthodox priests in Romania were arrested between 1945 and 1964.[300][304] The Orthodox theologian Dumitru Stăniloae whose three-volume Dogmatic Theology presents a synthesis of patristic and contemporary themes was imprisoned between 1958 and 1964.[305] The first Romanian saints were also canonized between 1950 and 1955.[306] Among them, the 17th-century Sava Brancovici was canonized for his relations with Russia.[306]
Some other denominations met an even more tragic fate.
Romania since 1989
The
Since the fall of Communism, about fourteen new Orthodox theology faculties and seminaries have opened, Orthodox monasteries have been reopened, and even new monasteries have been founded, for example, in Recea.[314] The Holy Synod has canonized new saints, among them Stephen the Great of Moldavia (1457–1504), and declared the second Sunday after Pentecost the "Sunday of the Romanian Saints".[315]
The Greek Catholic hierarchy was fully restored in 1990.[316] The four Roman Catholic dioceses in Transylvania, composed primarily of Hungarian-speaking inhabitants, hoped to be united into a distinct ecclesiastical province, but only Alba Iulia was raised to an archbishopric and placed directly under the jurisdiction of the Holy See in 1992.[317] After the exodus of the Transylvanian Saxons to Germany, only 30,000 of the members of the German Lutheran Church remained in Romania by the end of 1991.[318] According to the 2002 census, 86.7 percent of Romania's total population was Orthodox, 4.7 percent Roman Catholic, 3.2 percent Reformed, 1.5 percent Pentecostal, 0.9 percent Greek Catholic, and 0.6 percent Baptist.[319]
Footnotes
- ^ a b Treptow et al. 1997, p. 20.
- ^ Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 98.
- ^ Treptow et al. 1997, p. 28.
- ^ Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 88.
- ^ MacKendrick 1975, pp. 23, 192.
- ^ Treptow, Popa 1996, pp. 84–85, 201.
- ^ a b c Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 85.
- ^ Pop et al. 2005, pp. 173–175.
- ^ Pop et al. 2006, p. 94.
- ^ a b c d e Păcurariu 2007, p. 187
- ^ Pop et al. 2006, p. 103.
- ^ a b c d Treptow et al. 1997, p. 45.
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2020-05-20. Retrieved 2012-09-04.
{{cite web}}
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- ^ Curta 2006, p. 48.
- ^ Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History, Book VI, Chapter XXI.
- ^ Stephenson 2000, p. 64.
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- ^ Mircea Păcurariu, "Sfinți daco-români și români", Editura Mitropoliei Moldovei și Bucovinei, (Iași, 1994)
- ^ Pop et al. 2005, p. 187.
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- ^ MacKendrick 1975, p. 192.
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- ^ "Aemulatio Traiani? Constantine's Restored Dacia and the Tervingi | Society for Classical Studies". classicalstudies.org.
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