Romania in the Early Middle Ages

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The Early Middle Ages in Romania started with the withdrawal of the

inhumation
and vice versa until inhumation became dominant by the end of the 10th century.

The

place names of Slavic origin also prove the one-time presence of Early Slavs
in the regions west of the Carpathians.

The nomadic

Pontic steppes and began the conquest of the Carpathian Basin around 895. Their invasion gave rise to the earliest reference, recorded some centuries later in the Gesta Hungarorum, to a polity ruled by a Romanian duke named Gelou. The same source also makes mention of the presence of the Székelys in Crişana around 895. The first contemporaneous references to Romanians – who used to be known as Vlachs
 – in the regions now forming Romania were recorded in the 12th and 13th centuries. References to Vlachs inhabiting the lands to the south of the Lower Danube abound in the same period.

Banat, Crişana, and Transylvania were integrated into the

Eurasian Steppes in the first decades of the 13th century had lasting effects on the history of the region. The Mongols subjugated the Cumans in the 1230s and destroyed many settlements throughout the Kingdom of Hungary in 1241 and 1242, bringing the Early Middle Ages
to an end.

Background

Roman provinces and native tribes

Main article: Romania in Antiquity
Map of Roman Dacia
Roman provinces in the regions now forming Romania in the 2nd century AD

Contacts between the Roman Empire – which developed into the largest empire in the history of Europe – [1]and the natives of the regions now forming Romania commenced in the 2nd century BC.[2] These regions were inhabited by Dacians, Bastarnae and other peoples[3] whose incursions posed a threat to the empire.[4] The Romans initially attempted to secure their frontiers by various means, including the creation of buffer zones.[4] Finally, they decided that the annexation of the lands of these fierce "barbarians" was the best measure.[5] The territory of the Getae between the river Danube and the Black Sea (modern Dobruja) was the first region to be incorporated into the empire.[6] It was attached to the Roman province of Moesia in 46 AD.[6]

The Lower Danube marked the boundary between the empire and "Barbaricum"

Dacian Kingdom.[8] He achieved his goal through two military campaigns, the second of which ended with the annihilation of the Dacian state and the establishment of the province of Dacia in 106.[9][10] It included Oltenia and large portions of Banat, Transylvania, and Wallachia.[11] Many settlers "from all over the Roman world"[12] arrived and settled in the new province in the following decades.[13][14]

Dacia was situated over the empire's natural borders.

Carpians and Sarmatians from the 230s, and by the Goths from the 250s.[16][17][18] As the frontiers were to be shortened for defensive purposes,[19] the withdrawal of the Roman legions from Dacia began in the 260s.[20] The province officially ceased to exist under Emperor Aurelian (270–275)[21] who "withdrew the Romans from the cities and countryside of Dacia".[22][23] Garrisons stationed in Drobeta and Sucidava remained on the northern bank of the river.[24]

Origin of the Romanians

Main article: Origin of the Romanians
See also: History of Romania
Jireček Line
The "Jireček Line"

Romanians speak a language originating from the dialects of the Roman provinces north of the "

Eastern Roman military action in 587 or 588.[27][28] The soldier shouting them "in his native tongue"[29] spoke an Eastern Romance dialect of the Balkan Mountains.[30]

Grigore Nandris writes that the

brânză ("cheese"), for instance, belong to this group.[33] Many words related to a more settled form of animal husbandry were borrowed from Slavic, including coteţ ("poultry house"), grajd ("stable"), and stână ("fenced pasture").[34][35] Romanian has preserved Latin terms for agriculture[36] and the Latin names of certain crops, but a significant part of its agricultural lexis originates from a Slavic-speaking population.[34][37] The first group includes a ara ("to plough"), a semăna ("to sow"), a culege ("to harvest"), a secera ("to reap"), grâu ("wheat"), in ("flax"), and furcă ("pitchfork"), while a croi ("to cut out"), a plivi ("to weed"), brazdă ("furrow"), cobilă ("plow line"), coasă ("scythe"), lopată ("shovel") and many others are Slavic loanwords.[34][38]

The Romanian religious vocabulary is also divided, with a small number of basic terms preserved from Latin[36] and a significant number of borrowings from Old Church Slavonic.[39] Romanian did not preserve Latin words connected to urbanized society.[40]

The Romanians'

Balkan Peninsula.[42][43]

Late Roman Age

Scythia Minor and the limes on the Lower Danube (c. 270–c. 700)

Lower Moesia
around 293

The territory between the Lower Danube and the Black Sea remained a fully integrated part of the Roman Empire, even after the abandonment of Trajan's Dacia.

Scythia Minor[45] around 293.[46] Before 300, the Romans erected small forts at Dierna and in other places on the northern bank of the Danube in modern-day Banat.[47][48] In their wider region, Roman coins from the period—mostly of bronze—have been found.[49]

The existence of Christian communities in Scythia Minor became evident under Emperor

his co-emperors ordered the persecution of Christians throughout the empire, causing the death of many between 303 and 313.[50][51] Under Emperor Constantine the Great (306–337), a bridge across the Danube was constructed at Sucidava, a new fort (Constantiana Daphne) was built, and ancient roads were repaired in Oltenia.[52][53] The Lower Danube again became the empire's northern boundary in 369 at the latest, when Emperor Valens met Athanaric—the head of the Goths—in a boat in the middle of the river because the latter had taken an oath "never to set foot on Roman soil".[54][55]

The Huns destroyed Drobeta and Sucidava in the 440s, but the forts were restored under Emperor

Eastern Roman emperors made annual payments to the neighboring peoples in an attempt to keep the peace in the Balkans, the Avars regularly invaded Scythia Minor from the 580s.[58] The Romans abandoned Sucidava in 596 or 597,[59] but Tomis, which was the last town in Scythia Minor to resist the invaders, only fell in 704.[60]

North of the limes (c. 270–c. 330)

Transylvania and northern Banat, which had belonged to Dacia province, had no direct contact with the Roman Empire from the 270s.

Potaissa and other settlements.[64] On the other hand, evidence – mainly pottery with "Chi-rho" (Χ-Ρ) signs and other Christian symbols – is "shadowy and poorly understood", according to archaeologists Haynes and Hanson.[65]

Urns found in late 3rd-century cemeteries at

Carpo-Dacians" were listed among the peoples "mixed with the Huns"[68] as late as 379.[69][70] The Sarmatians of the Banat[47] were allies of the empire, demonstrated by a Roman invasion in 332 against the Goths, their enemies.[71][53] Sarmatians were admitted into the empire in 379, but other Sarmatian groups remained in the Tisa plains up until the 460s.[72][73]

Gutthiuda: land of the Goths (c. 290–c. 455)

Main article: Thervingi
See also: Gothic Christianity
Gutthiuda
Gutthiuda, the country of Thervingi

The Goths started penetrating into territories west of the river Dniester from the 230s.[74][75] Two distinct groups separated by the river, the Thervingi and the Greuthungi, quickly emerged among them.[76] The one-time province of Dacia was held by "the Taifali, Victohali, and Thervingi"[77] around 350.[19][78]

The Goths' success is marked by the expansion of the multiethnic "

Sântana de Mureş-Chernyakhov culture".[19] Settlements of the culture appeared in Moldavia and Wallachia at the end of the 3rd century,[79] and in Transylvania after 330.[53] These lands were inhabited by a sedentary population engaged in farming and cattle-breeding.[30] Pottery, comb-making and other handicrafts flourished in the villages.[80] Wheel-made fine pottery is a typical item of the period; hand-formed cups of the local tradition were also preserved.[81][82] Plowshares similar to those made in nearby Roman provinces and Scandinavian-style brooches indicate trade contacts with these regions.[83] "Sântana de Mureş-Chernyakhov" villages, sometimes covering an area exceeding 20 hectares (49 acres), were not fortified[84] and consisted of two types of houses: sunken huts with walls made of wattle and daub and surface buildings with plastered timber walls.[84] Sunken huts had for centuries been typical for settlements east of the Carpathians,[85] but now they appeared in distant zones of the Pontic steppes.[86]

Gothic treasure from Pietroasele
Pieces of the Pietroasele Treasure

The multiethnic Gutthiuda was divided into smaller political units or kuni, each headed by tribal chiefs or reiks.

Cappadocian captive, was ordained bishop "of the Christians in the land of the Goths"[91] in 341.[90][92] Expelled from Gutthiuda during a persecution of Christians, Ulfilas settled in Moesia in 348.[93]

Gothic dominance collapsed when the Huns arrived[94] and attacked the Thervingi in 376.[95] Most of the Thervingi sought asylum in the Roman Empire,[96] and were followed by large groups of Greuthungi and Taifali.[73] All the same, significant groups of Goths stayed in the territories north of the Danube.[97] For instance, Athanaric "retired with all his men to Caucalanda"—probably to the valley of the river Olt— from where they "drove out the Sarmatians".[98][99] A hoard of Roman coins issued under Valentinian I and Valens suggests that the gates of the amphitheatre at Ulpia Traiana were blocked around the same time.[100] The Pietroasele Treasure which was hidden around 450 also implies the presence of a Gothic tribal or religious leader in the lands between the Carpathians and the Lower Danube.[101] It contains a torc bearing the inscription GUTANI O WI HAILAG, which is interpreted by Malcolm Todd as "God who protects the Goths, most holy and inviolate".[102]

Gepidia: land of the Gepids (c. 290–c. 630)

Main article: Gepids
Gepidia
at its largest territorial extent

The earliest reference to Gepids – an

Şimleu Silvaniei, where early 5th-century precious objects of Roman provenance have been unearthed.[107][108]

The Huns imposed their authority over the Gepids by the 420s,

Attila, king of the Huns,[110] he initiated an uprising against the Huns when Attila died in 453.[111][112] The Gepids regained their independence[113] and "ruled as victors over the extent of all Dacia".[114][115]

Apahida Necropolis

Three

John of Biclar refers to an Arian bishop of the Gepids which suggests that they adopted Christianity through their connection with the Arian Goths.[118]

New settlements appearing along the rivers Mureş,

Moreşti, and other villages lived in sunken huts covered with gabled roofs but with no hearths or ovens.[120][121] They were primarily farmers, but looms, combs, and other products evidence the existence of local workshops.[119] Trading contacts between Gepidia and faraway regions is evidenced by finds of amber beads and brooches manufactured in the Crimea, Mazovia or Scandinavia.[122]

The Avar invasion of 568 ended the independent Gepidia.[123] Written sources evidence the survival of Gepid groups within the Avar Empire.[124] For instance, Eastern Roman troops "encountered three Gepid settlements"[125] on the Tisa plains in 599 or 600.[126][124]

Hunnic Empire (c. 400–c. 460)

Main article: Huns
Map of the Hunnic Empire
The Hunnic Empire around 450

The Huns, a people of uncertain origin,

Eastern Roman Empire between 401 and 408.[132][133]

The Eastern Roman government paid an annual tribute to the Huns from the 420s.

Attila, in 448.[137] At that time, Gothic was widely spoken in the royal court since "the subjects of the Huns" spoke "besides their own barbarous tongues, either Hunnic or Gothic, or—as many as have commercial dealings with the western Romans—Latin".[136][138]

The Huns imposed their authority on a sedentary population.[139] Priscus of Panium refers to a village where he and his retinue were supplied "with millet instead of corn" and "medos (mead) instead of wine".[138][140] Attila's sudden death in 453[141] caused a civil war among his sons.[142] The subject peoples revolted and emerged the victors at the Battle of Nedao in 454.[111][143] The remnants of the Huns withdrew to the Pontic steppes.[144] One of their groups was admitted to settle in Scythia Minor in 460.[145]

After the first migrations

Between Huns and Avars (c. 450–c. 565)

Main articles: Antes people and Sclaveni
See also: Early Slavs

The last "Sântana de Mureş-Chernyakhov" objects once widespread in Gutthiuda – such as fine wares and weapons – are dated to the period ending around 430.

Târgşor was characterized by crushed-shard tempered vessels, and a sample of the most common "Kolochin" vessels was found in the Budureasca Valley.[154]

There are few known cemeteries from the second half of the 5th century,

Secuieni.[155]

Jordanes,

Sclavenes" and "Antes" to refer to the peoples inhabiting the territory north of the Lower Danube.[159] The Antes launched their first campaign over the Lower Danube in 518.[160] After they concluded a treaty with the Eastern Roman Empire in 545, the Sclavenes started to plunder the Balkan provinces.[161] Both ethnic groups seized many prisoners of wars during their raids, but they were ready to integrate them "as free men and friends".[162][163]

The names of early 6th-century leaders of the Sclavenes or Antes are unknown.

Procopius's report of the "phoney Chilbudius" – a young Antian serf who "spoke the Latin tongue"[167] – who was dispatched by his fellow tribesmen to negotiate with the Eastern Roman Empire in 545.[168]

The disappearance of bronze and gold coins from sites north of the Lower Danube demonstrates an "economic closure of the frontier" of the Eastern Roman Empire between 545 and 565.

Lozna, and other sites.[154][173] The use of handmade clay pans for baking bread was spreading from the regions south and east of the Carpathians towards lands over the Dniester and the Lower Danube.[174]

Avar Empire (c. 565–c. 800)

Main article:
Avar Khaganate

The

Musocius, "was called rex in the barbarian tongue".[184][185]

Graves of males interred together with horses found at

Medişoru Mare, suggesting the employment of non-Avar horsemen in the 8th century.[188]

Large "

Late Avar" cemeteries used by several generations between c. 700 and c. 800 imply "an advanced degree of sedentization" of the entire society.[189] The Avar Empire collapsed after the Franks launched three campaigns against the westernmost Avar territories between 791 and 803.[177] Soon afterwards the Bulgars attacked the Avars from the southeast,[190] and Charlemagne settled Avar groups in Pannonia.[190]

Emergence of new powers (c. 600–c. 895)

The Lower Danube region experienced a period of stability after the establishment of the Avar Empire.

Ananias of Shirak, a 7th-century Armenian geographer described the "large country of Dacia" as inhabited by Slavs who formed "twenty-five tribes".[194][195][196]

A map of the Bulgarian Empire and the Balkans in the ninth century
The Bulgarian lands across the Danube in the ninth century, after the territorial expansion under Krum, Omurtag and Presian

Villages of sunken huts with stone ovens[149] appeared in Transylvania around 600.[197][198][199] Their network was expanding along the rivers Mureş, Olt and Someş.[197][198] The so-called "Mediaş group" of cremation or mixed cemeteries emerged in this period near salt mines.[200] The Hungarian and the Romanian vocabulary of salt mining was taken from Slavic, suggesting that Slavs were employed in the mines for centuries.[201][202] Bistriţa ("swift"), Crasna ("nice" or "red"), Sibiu ("dogwood"), and many other rivers and settlements with names of Slavic origin also evidence the presence of Slavs in Transylvania.[203][204]

The Turkic-speaking Bulgars arrived in the territories west of the river Dniester around 670.

Slavicization of the Bulgars soon began.[214]

Opreanu writes that the "new cultural synthesis" known as the "

Dridu culture" developed in the Lower Danube region around 680.[215][216] New settlements[217] and large cemeteries show that the region experienced a steady demographic rise in the 8th century.[218] The large, unfortified "Dridu" settlements were characterized by traditional semi-sunken huts, but a few houses with ground-level floors have also been unearthed in Dodeşti, Spinoasa, and other places.[219]

9th-11th-century objects from the Alba Iulia region
9th-11th-century ceramics and objects from Alba Iulia area, in display at the National Museum of the Union
Persecution of Christians in Bulgaria
Omurtag orders the persecution of Christians in his empire

"Dridu" communities produced and used gray or yellow fine pottery,

tumuli,[197][227][228] similar to the kurgans of East Slavic territories.[199]

Contemporaneous authors rarely dwelled on early medieval Southeastern Europe.

Omurtag (814–831) in the regions of the rivers Dnieper and Tisa are attested by two columns erected in the memory of Bulgar military leaders who drowned in these rivers during military campaigns.[235][236] Emperor Arnulf sent envoys, in 894, to the Bulgarians to "ask that they should not sell salt to the Moravians",[237][238][239] suggesting a Bulgarian control over either the Transylvanian salt mines[237] or the roads to Moravia.[240]

In the same year, the nomadic Hungarians – who had arrived in the Lower Danube region from the

Bulgarians also attacked them from the south.[237] The two synchronized attacks forced the Hungarians to cross the Carpathian Mountains in search for a new homeland.[237]

Hungarian Land-taking": a map based primarily on the narration of the Gesta Hungarorum

About 300 years later,

Svatopluk of Moravia and the conquerors' opponents known from contemporary sources.[245] Instead, he wrote of a number of personalities unknown by other chroniclers.[245][246] In Gesta Hungarorum, Menumorut ruled over "the peoples that are called Kozár"[247] in Crişana.[245][248] Anonymus also wrote of the Székelys ("previously the peoples of King Attila")[249] living in the territory for centuries who joined the invading Hungarians.[250] Banat, according to Anonymus, was ruled by Glad who had come "from the castle of Vidin."[247][251] Glad is described to employ "Cumans, Bulgarians and Vlachs"[252] in his army.[251] Anonymous also wrote of Gelou, "a certain Vlach"[253] ruling in Transylvania, a land inhabited by "Vlachs and Slavs".[251][254] Gelou's subjects are portrayed as having "suffered many injuries from the Cumans and Pechenegs".[255][253]

Formation of new states and the last waves of migrations

First Bulgarian Empire after conversion (864–1018)

Main articles: First Bulgarian Empire and Christianization of Bulgaria

Mircea Vodă in Romania.[259] The Cyrillic inscription from 943 refers to a "župan Dimitrie".[260]

Traces of Bulgarian influence in the territory of modern Romania are found mostly in the area of Wallachia. For example in sites from

Mărăcinele, water pipe fragments have been found dating to the 9th or 10th century. No building in the region from the time is known to have used them and the evidence gathered points more likely at production centres destined for exporting their goods to the Bulgarian rising urban centres of Pliska and Preslav.[261]

Byzantine troops occupied large portions of Bulgaria, including modern

David, was killed by Vlachs in the present-day border region between Greece and North Macedonia.[264] In 1018, the Byzantines conquered the whole territory of the Bulgarian Empire[265] and the Archbishop of Ohrid acquired ecclesiastic jurisdiction in 1020 over the Vlachs living there.[266][267]

Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin (c. 895–c. 1000)

Main article: Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin
See also: Hungarian prehistory, Origin of the Székelys, and Simeon I of Bulgaria
Illuminated Chronicle

The way taken by the Hungarians across the

Illuminated Chronicle writes of Hungarians fleeing through the eastern passes of the Carpathian Mountains to Transylvania[270] where they "remained quietly" and "rested their herds"[275] for a while before moving further west.[276] The so-called "Cluj group"[222] of small inhumation cemeteries—graves with west–east orientation, often containing remains of horses—[277] appeared on both sides of the Apuseni Mountains around 900.[278] Their military character evidences that the people using them formed a "double defensive line" organized against the Pechenegs.[278] Transylvanian cemeteries of the "Cluj group" cluster around salt mines.[186]

Emperor

Hotoan, and Ineu—[283] also evidence that major Hungarian groups settled in Transylvania from the 950s.[284][285] An early "Bijelo Brdo" cemetery belonging to a 10th- and 11th-century archaeological culture with finds from all over the Carpathian Basin was found at Deva.[286]

Patzinakia: land of the Pechenegs (c. 895–c. 1120)

Main articles: Pechenegs and Blakumen
Europe in 1097

The Turkic-speaking[243] Pechenegs took the control of the territories east of the Carpathians from the Hungarians around 895.[287][288] Emperor Constantine VII wrote that two Pecheneg "provinces" or "clans" ("Kato Gyla" and "Giazichopon")[289] were located in Moldavia and Wallachia around 950.[290] The change of dominion had no major effect on the sedentary "Dridu"[291] villages in the region.[292] The settlements in Moldavia and Wallachia, most of them built on river banks or lake shores, remained unfortified.[293] Sporadic finds of horse brasses and other "nomadic" objects evidence the presence of Pechenegs in "Dridu" communities.[294] Snaffle bits with rigid mouthpieces and round stirrups—novelties of the early 10th century—were also unearthed in Moldavia and Wallachia.[295] Cemeteries of the locals show that inhumation replaced cremation by the end of the 10th century.[296]

The

Basarabi Cave Complex at Murfatlar.[304]

Large groups of Pechenegs pressured from the east by the

Ouzes received asylum in the Byzantine Empire in 1046 and 1047.[305] All the same, Pecheneg populations remained in the regions north of the Lower Danube even thereafter.[306] Some of them were admitted into the Kingdom of Hungary in the next decades, where they were settled in southern Transylvania and other regions.[307]

Byzantine revival and the Second Bulgarian Empire (970s–c. 1185)

Main articles: Paristrion and Second Bulgarian Empire
A Byzantine pendant
A pendant discovered at the Byzantine fortress from Păcuiul lui Soare

Around 971, Emperor

Robert of Clari and other western authors,[318] who refer either to the new state or to its mountainous regions as "Vlachia" until the 1250s.[318]

Kingdom of Hungary (c. 1000–1241)

Main article: Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)
See also: Székely Land and Transylvanian Saxons
Map of the Kingdom of Hungary
The Kingdom of Hungary at the end of the 11th century

Alba Iulia, Biharea (from the last decades of the 11th century in Oradea), and Cenad.[325]

Royal administration in the entire kingdom was based on

counties organized around royal fortresses.[326] In modern Romania's territory, references to an ispán or count of Alba[327] in 1097, and to a count of Bihor in 1111 evidence the appearance of the county system.[328] The counties in Banat and Crişana remained under direct royal authority, but a great officer of the realm, the voivode, supervised the ispáns of the Transylvanian counties from the end of the 12th century.[329]

Eastward expansion of "Bijelo Brdo" villages along the Mureş continued in the 11th century.

Şimoneşti and other villages evidence the survival of the local population.[330] The lands between the Carpathians and the Tisa were plundered by Pechenegs in the 1010s[331] and in 1068, by Ouzes in 1085,[332] and by Cumans in 1091.[333] Cluj, Dăbâca and other royal forts built of earth and timber were strengthened after the 1068 attack.[334] In these forts appeared the so-called "Citfalău cemeteries", dependent upon late 11th-century royal legislation forcing commoners to set up their graveyards around churches.[335]

The early presence of Székelys at

seats" instead of counties,[338] and a royal officer, the "Count of the Székelys" became the head of their community from the 1220s.[339] The Székelys provided military services to the monarchs and remained exempt of royal taxes.[340]

Cistercian Abbey at Cârța

A great number of

Count of Sibiu", was preserved for the monarchs.[345] The Transylvanian Saxons—as they were collectively mentioned from the early 13th century[342]—also received the right to "use the forests of the Romanians and the Pechenegs" along with these peoples.[345]

The earliest royal charter referring to Romanians in Transylvania is connected to the foundation of the Cistercian abbey at Cârța around 1202,[346] which was granted land, up to that time possessed by Romanians.[347] Another royal charter reveals that Romanians fought for Bulgaria along with Saxons, Székelys and Pechenegs under the leadership of the Count of Sibiu in 1210.[348] The Orthodox Romanians remained exempt from the tithe payable by all Catholic peasants to the Church.[349] Furthermore, they only paid a special in kind tax, the "fiftieth" on their herds.[349]

Organized settling continued with the arrival of the

Teutonic Knights in Ţara Bârsei in 1211.[350] They were granted the right to freely pass through "the land of the Székelys and the land of the Vlachs" in 1222.[347] The knights tried to free themselves from the monarch's authority, thus King Andrew II expelled them from the region in 1225.[351] Thereafter, the king appointed his heir, Béla,[352] with the title of duke, to administer Transylvania.[353][354] Duke Béla occupied Oltenia and set up a new province, the Banate of Severin, in the 1230s.[353][354]

Cumania: land of the Cumans (c. 1060–1241)

Main article: Cumans
Cuman stone statue
Cuman stone statue from the 11th century in Luhansk, Ukraine

The arrival of the

Oghuzname[356] relates that Qipchaq, the ancient Cuman hero, fought against the Ulak (Romanians), along with other nations.[306] Cuman groups assisted the rebelling Bulgarians and Vlachs against the Byzantines between 1186 and 1197.[357]

Dridu villages of the lowlands east of the Carpathians were abandoned between 1050 and 1080,[358] around which time new settlements appeared on higher land on both banks of the Prut.[358] A sharp decrease from 300 to 35 in the number of archaeological sites—settlements, cemeteries and coin hords—evidences a population decline which continued well into the 13th century.[359] Byzantine troops marching towards Transylvania through the territory east of the Carpathians encountered "a land entirely bereft of men"[360] in 1166.[361]

A coalition of

Rus' princes and Cuman tribes suffered a sound defeat by the Mongols in the Battle of the Kalka River in 1223.[362] Shortly thereafter Boricius, a Cuman chieftain,[363] accepted baptism and the supremacy of the king of Hungary.[352] The Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania was set up in his territories in 1228.[363] A letter of 1234[352] written by Pope Gregory IX refers to a "certain people within the Cuman bishopric called Walati" (Vlachs) who even persuaded Catholic Hungarians and Germans to accept the ecclesiastic authority of Orthodox prelates.[364]

Mongol invasion (1241–1242)

Main article: Mongol invasion of Europe
Mongol invasion of the Kingdom of Hungary depicted in Chronica Hungarorum by Johannes de Thurocz

The

Igriș, and Cenad.[368]

The Mongol invasion lasted for a year, and the Mongols devastated huge swathes of territory of the kingdom before their unexpected withdrawal in 1242.

Mărişelu,[376] Tășnad and Zalău were almost depopulated.[377] Another charter from 1252 evidences that Zec,[378] a village on the Olt, was totally deserted.[379]

After the devastation of the region, they [the Mongols] surrounded the great village with a combined force of some Tatars together with Russians, Cumans and their Hungarian prisoners. They sent first the Hungarian prisoners ahead and when they were all slain, the Russians, the Ishmaelites, and Cumans went into battle. The Tatars, standing behind them all at the back, laughed at their plight and ruin and killed those who retreated from the battle and subjected as many as they could to their devouring swords, so that after fighting for a week, day and night, and filling up the moat, they captured the village. Then they made the soldiers and ladies, of whom there were many, stand in a field on one side and the peasants on the other. Having robbed them of their money, clothing and other goods, they cruelly executed them with axes and swords, leaving only some of the ladies and girls alive, whom they took for their entertainment.

— Master Roger's Epistle[380]

Aftermath

Main article:
Foundation of Wallachia
Illuminated Chronicle
manuscript)

A new period of intensive settlements began in Banat, Transylvania and other regions within the Kingdom of Hungary after the withdrawal of the Mongols.

Knights Hospitallers in the lands between the Carpathians and the Lower Danube.[364] His diploma of 1247 for the Knights evidences the existence of four Romanian polities in the region.[382] They were under the rule of voivodes Litovoi and Seneslau, and of knezes Farcaș and John.[382]

Internal conflicts characterized the last decades of the 13th century in the Kingdom of Hungary.[383] For instance, a feud between King Béla and his son, Stephen caused a civil war which lasted from 1261 to 1266.[384] Taking advantage of the emerging anarchy, Voivode Litovoi attempted to get rid of the Hungarian monarchs' suzerainty in the 1270s, but he fell in a battle while fighting against royal troops.[385][386] One of his successors, Basarab I of Wallachia was the first Romanian monarch whose sovereignty was internationally recognized after his victory over King Charles I of Hungary in the Battle of Posada of 1330.[386]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ Heather 2006, p. xi.
  2. ^ Opreanu 2005, p. 59.
  3. ^ Bolovan et al. 1997, pp. 11–13.
  4. ^ a b Opreanu 2005, pp. 59–60.
  5. ^ Opreanu 2005, p. 60.
  6. ^ a b Bolovan et al. 1997, pp. 28–29.
  7. ^ Opreanu 2005, pp. 60, 67.
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Sources

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Further reading

External links

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