Sabana Formation
Sabana Formation | |
---|---|
Ma | |
Type | Geological formation |
Underlies | Holocene unconsolidated sediments |
Overlies | Subachoque Fm., Tilatá Fm. |
Area | ~4,500 km2 (1,700 sq mi) |
Thickness | up to 320 m (1,050 ft) |
Lithology | |
Primary | Shale |
Other | Lignite, sandstone, volcanic ash |
Location | |
Coordinates | 4°43′02.3″N 74°13′01.2″W / 4.717306°N 74.217000°W |
Region | Bogotá savanna, Altiplano Cundiboyacense Eastern Ranges, Andes |
Country | Colombia |
Extent | ~90 km × 40 km (56 mi × 25 mi) |
Type section | |
Named for | Bogotá savanna |
Named by | Helmens & Hammen |
Location | Funza II well |
Year defined | 1995 |
Coordinates | 4°43′02.3″N 74°13′01.2″W / 4.717306°N 74.217000°W |
Region | Cundinamarca |
Country | Colombia |
Thickness at type section | 317 m (1,040 ft) |
Paleogeography of the Pleistocene by Ron Blakey |
The Sabana Formation (
The uppermost sediments of the Sabana Formation were deposited during the Last Glacial Maximum, a time when the first humans populated the Bogotá savanna. These hunter-gatherers used the bones of the still extant Pleistocene megafauna as Notiomastodon platensis, Cuvieronius hyodon and Equus neogeus, of which fossils have been found in the Sabana Formation.
Knowledge about the formation has been provided by geologists Alberto Guerrero, Thomas van der Hammen and others.
Etymology
The formation was first defined and named after the Bogotá savanna (Sabana de Bogotá) by Hubach in 1957, further described by Van der Hammen in 1973,[1] Guerrero (1992, 1993, 1996) and by Helmens and Van der Hammen in 1995.[2][3][4][5]
Regional setting
The Bogotá savanna is a slightly undulated
.During the Mesozoic, the central part of Colombia was a rift basin to the west of the
Subduction of the Nazca Plate underneath western South America and the resulting compression in the continent created reversal of former extensional faults of the Mesozoic rift basin in the Eastern Ranges. A series of fold and thrust belts, oriented in a north–south to northeast–southwest sense, were formed in the Eastern Andes, uplifting the former marine strata and creating a high plateau between the western and eastern fronts; the Altiplano Cundiboyacense. The tectonic movements of this Andean orogenic phase are reflected in Upper Miocene units as the Marichuela Formation, underlying the Pliocene and Pleistocene sediments of which the Sabana Formation represents the final chapter.
Description
Lithologies
The Sabana Formation consists mainly of horizontally bedded little consolidated grey and greenish
Stratigraphy
The Sabana Formation in some areas conformably overlies the
Depositional environment
The
Present-day, the lakes of Fúquene, Herrera and Suesca are remnants of Lake Humboldt, as well as the many wetlands of Bogotá.[6]
Paleoecology
The Sabana Formation was deposited during the Pleistocene glaciations and interglacials ("ice ages"). The fluctuations in climate in the Eastern Colombian Andes have been studied around Lake Fúquene at an altitude of 2,540 metres (8,330 ft), to the north of the Bogotá savanna. During the Last Glacial Maximum of the Pleistocene, the paleoecology of the region varied drastically, marking movements of the upper tree line and the types of vegetation. Pollen analysis shows that páramo vegetation was abundant from 30 ka to 17,500 years ago, with an increase in Andean forest frequency dated at 15.6 ka. Between 13,000 and 11,000 years BP, a decrease in Andean forest percentage is observed, indicative of a colder climate than before. This period has been named the Fúquene stadial. The stadial is followed by an interstadial (Guantivá), with an increase in lake levels of Lake Fúquene.[12] The wetter periods of the interstadial covered earlier paleotopography with humic sediments.[13]
During the last phase of deposition of the Sabana Formation, the Bogotá savanna was surrounded by populations of
Human settlement
The latest sedimentation phase of the Sabana Formation, evidenced by the sites El Abra, Tibitó and Tequendama, was accompanied by the first confirmed human settlement in Colombia. Around 12,500 years BP, groups of hunter-gatherers populated the rock shelters surrounding the retreating Lake Humboldt. The people of the area hunted the still extant Pleistocene species, and used their remains for the construction of primitive settlements, as bone tools and the skins as clothing. At this stage, the timber line was 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) lower than today.[26]
During the Holocene, the inhabitants of the Bogotá savanna gradually moved away from the rock shelters as permanent settlements in favour of more open area locations, as Checua and Aguazuque. Around 5000 years BP, agriculture became a more dominant phenomenon and the fertile clays mixed with volcanic ash of the Sabana Formation, combined with the bimodal pattern of seasonal precipitation made the Bogotá savanna an ideal area for growing crops. Pottery was used in the Herrera Period, from around 2800 years BP onwards, and the sediments of the Sabana Formation were used for various styles of ceramics, grouped by researchers based on the colour of the original clays. The northern settlement of Suesca was an important ceramic producing centre for the people. An advanced civilisation developed in the first and second millennia CE, leading to the Muisca Confederation, a loose collection of caciques. The southern Muisca area was centered around the Bogotá savanna with as main settlement Bacatá in the middle of the savanna, the namesake of the current capital of Colombia, Bogotá.[27]
With the expansion in the late colonial and early republican era of the Colombian capital to the west and north of the city, the unconsolidated finer sediments of the Sabana Formation became more and more the foundation for construction, leading to problems due to the differential compaction of the sandy and more clay-rich strata.[28]
Outcrops
The Sabana Formation is found at its type locality in the Funza II well, and covering most of the Bogotá savanna.[2] The newer parts of Bogotá, especially the neighbourhoods north of the Avenida Chile (Calle 72) in Chapinero and west of the Autopista Norte (Avenida 30), rest upon the Sabana Formation, where the unconsolidated shales cause frequent fissures in the roads constructed in the Colombian capital. The southeastern part of Bogotá, including the historic centre, rests upon the more competent Tunjuelo Formation.[3]
Regional correlations
Ma |
Age | Paleomap | Regional events | Catatumbo | Cordillera | proximal Llanos | distal Llanos | Putumayo | VSM | Environments | Maximum thickness | Petroleum geology | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.01 | Holocene | Holocene volcanism Seismic activity |
alluvium | Overburden | |||||||||
1 | Pleistocene | Pleistocene volcanism Andean orogeny 3 Glaciations |
Guayabo | Soatá Sabana |
Necesidad | Guayabo | Gigante |
fluvial (Guayabo) |
550 m (1,800 ft) (Guayabo) |
[29][30][31][32] | |||
2.6 | Pliocene | Pliocene volcanism Andean orogeny 3 GABI |
Subachoque | ||||||||||
5.3 | Messinian | Andean orogeny 3 Foreland |
Marichuela | Caimán | Honda | [31][33] | |||||||
13.5 | Langhian | Regional flooding | León | hiatus | Caja | León | Lacustrine (León) |
400 m (1,300 ft) (León) |
Seal |
[32][34] | |||
16.2 | Burdigalian | Miocene inundations Andean orogeny 2 |
C1 | Carbonera C1 | Ospina | Proximal fluvio-deltaic (C1) | 850 m (2,790 ft) (Carbonera) |
Reservoir | [33][32] | ||||
17.3 | C2 | Carbonera C2 | Distal lacustrine-deltaic (C2) | Seal |
|||||||||
19 | C3 | Carbonera C3 | Proximal fluvio-deltaic (C3) | Reservoir | |||||||||
21 | Early Miocene | Pebas wetlands | C4 | Carbonera C4 | Barzalosa | Distal fluvio-deltaic (C4) | Seal |
||||||
23 | Late Oligocene |
Foredeep |
C5 | Carbonera C5 | Orito | Proximal fluvio-deltaic (C5) | Reservoir | [30][33] | |||||
25 | C6 | Carbonera C6 | Distal fluvio-lacustrine (C6) | Seal |
|||||||||
28 | Early Oligocene |
C7 | C7 | Pepino | Gualanday | Proximal deltaic-marine (C7) | Reservoir | [30][33][35] | |||||
32 | Oligo-Eocene | C8 | Usme | C8 | onlap | Marine-deltaic (C8) | Seal Source |
[35] | |||||
35 | Late Eocene |
Mirador | Mirador | Coastal (Mirador) | 240 m (790 ft) (Mirador) |
Reservoir | [32][36] | ||||||
40 | Middle Eocene |
Regadera | hiatus | ||||||||||
45 | |||||||||||||
50 | Early Eocene |
Socha | Los Cuervos | Deltaic (Los Cuervos) | 260 m (850 ft) (Los Cuervos) |
Seal Source |
[32][36] | ||||||
55 | Late Paleocene |
PETM 2000 ppm CO2 |
Los Cuervos | Bogotá | Gualanday | ||||||||
60 | Early Paleocene |
SALMA | Barco | Guaduas | Barco | Rumiyaco | Fluvial (Barco) | 225 m (738 ft) (Barco) |
Reservoir | [29][30][33][32][37] | |||
65 | Maastrichtian | KT extinction |
Catatumbo | Guadalupe | Monserrate | Deltaic-fluvial (Guadalupe) | 750 m (2,460 ft) (Guadalupe) |
Reservoir | [29][32] | ||||
72 | Campanian | End of rifting |
Colón-Mito Juan | [32][38] | |||||||||
83 | Santonian | Villeta/Güagüaquí | |||||||||||
86 | Coniacian | ||||||||||||
89 | Turonian | Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event |
La Luna | Chipaque | Gachetá |
hiatus | Restricted marine (all) | 500 m (1,600 ft) (Gachetá) |
Source | [29][32][39] | |||
93 | Cenomanian | Rift 2 |
|||||||||||
100 | Albian | Une | Une | Caballos | Deltaic (Une) | 500 m (1,600 ft) (Une) |
Reservoir | [33][39] | |||||
113 | Aptian | Capacho | Fómeque | Motema | Yaví | Open marine (Fómeque) | 800 m (2,600 ft) (Fómeque) |
Source (Fóm) | [30][32][40] | ||||
125 | Barremian | High biodiversity | Aguardiente | Paja | Shallow to open marine (Paja) | 940 m (3,080 ft) (Paja) |
Reservoir | [29] | |||||
129 | Hauterivian | Rift 1 |
Tibú- Mercedes |
Las Juntas | hiatus | Deltaic (Las Juntas) | 910 m (2,990 ft) (Las Juntas) |
Reservoir (LJun) | [29] | ||||
133 | Valanginian | Río Negro | Cáqueza Macanal Rosablanca |
Restricted marine (Macanal) | 2,935 m (9,629 ft) (Macanal) |
Source (Mac) | [30][41] | ||||||
140 | Berriasian | Girón | |||||||||||
145 | Tithonian | Break-up of Pangea |
Jordán | Arcabuco | Buenavista |
Saldaña | fluvial (Buenavista) |
110 m (360 ft) (Buenavista) |
"Jurassic" | [33][42] | |||
150 | Early-Mid Jurassic | Passive margin 2 | La Quinta | Noreán |
hiatus | Coastal tuff (La Quinta) | 100 m (330 ft) (La Quinta) |
[43] | |||||
201 | Late Triassic | Mucuchachi | Payandé | [33] | |||||||||
235 | Early Triassic | Pangea |
hiatus | "Paleozoic" | |||||||||
250 | Permian | ||||||||||||
300 | Late Carboniferous | Famatinian orogeny | Cerro Neiva () |
[44] | |||||||||
340 | Early Carboniferous | Fossil fish Romer's gap |
Cuche (355-385) |
Farallones () |
Deltaic, estuarine (Cuche) | 900 m (3,000 ft) (Cuche) |
|||||||
360 | Late Devonian |
Passive margin 1 | Río Cachirí (360-419) |
Ambicá () |
fluvial-reef (Farallones) |
2,400 m (7,900 ft) (Farallones) |
[41][45][46][47][48] | ||||||
390 | Early Devonian | High biodiversity | Floresta (387-400) |
Shallow marine (Floresta) | 600 m (2,000 ft) (Floresta) |
||||||||
410 | Late Silurian |
Silurian mystery | |||||||||||
425 | Early Silurian | hiatus | |||||||||||
440 | Late Ordovician | Rich fauna in Bolivia | San Pedro (450-490) |
Duda () |
|||||||||
470 | Early Ordovician | First fossils | Busbanzá (>470±22) |
Guape () |
Río Nevado () |
[49][50][51] | |||||||
488 | Late Cambrian | Regional intrusions | Chicamocha (490-515) |
Quetame () |
Ariarí () |
SJ del Guaviare (490-590) |
San Isidro () |
[52][53] | |||||
515 | Early Cambrian | Cambrian explosion | [51][54] | ||||||||||
542 | Ediacaran | Break-up of Rodinia | pre-Quetame | post-Parguaza | El Barro () |
Yellow: allochthonous basement (Chibcha Terrane) Green: autochthonous basement (Río Negro-Juruena Province) |
Basement | [55][56] | |||||
600 | Neoproterozoic | Cariri Velhos orogeny | Bucaramanga (600-1400) |
pre-Guaviare | [52] | ||||||||
800 | Snowball Earth | [57] | |||||||||||
1000 | Mesoproterozoic | Sunsás orogeny | Ariarí (1000) |
La Urraca (1030-1100) |
[58][59][60][61] | ||||||||
1300 | Rondônia-Juruá orogeny | pre-Ariarí | Parguaza (1300-1400) |
Garzón (1180-1550) |
[62] | ||||||||
1400 | pre-Bucaramanga | [63] | |||||||||||
1600 | Paleoproterozoic | Maimachi (1500-1700) |
pre-Garzón | [64] | |||||||||
1800 | Tapajós orogeny | Mitú (1800) |
[62][64] | ||||||||||
1950 | Transamazonic orogeny | pre-Mitú | [62] | ||||||||||
2200 | Columbia | ||||||||||||
2530 | Archean | Carajas-Imataca orogeny | [62] | ||||||||||
3100 | Kenorland | ||||||||||||
Sources |
- Legend
- group
- important formation
- fossiliferous formation
- minor formation
- (age in Ma)
- proximal Llanos (Medina)[note 1]
- distal Llanos (Saltarin 1A well)[note 2]
See also
- Geology of the Eastern Hills
- Geology of the Ocetá Páramo
- Geology of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense
Notes
References
- ^ Acosta & Garay, 2002, p.65
- ^ a b c d Montoya & Reyes, 2005, p.72
- ^ a b c d Guerrero, 1992, p.6
- ^ a b Guerrero, 1993, p.9
- ^ a b c Guerrero, 1996, p.3
- ^ a b Guerrero, 1996, p.4
- ^ Guerrero, 1996, p.5
- ^ Villarroel et al., 2001, p.84
- ^ Guerrero, 1993, p.7
- ^ Guerrero, 1996, p.10
- ^ Hoyos et al., 2015, p.265
- ^ Urrego et al., 2016, p.703
- ^ Scott & Meyers, 1994, p.390
- ^ De Porta, 1961, p.52
- ^ Bürgl, 1956
- ^ a b Hammen, 1986, p.30
- ^ Correal Urrego, 1990, p.77
- ^ De Porta, 1960
- ^ Correal Urrego, 1993, p.4
- ^ Hammen, 1986, p.29
- ^ Mothé et al., 2016a
- ^ Mothé et al., 2016b
- ^ Mothé & Avilla, 2015
- ^ Mothé et al., 2012
- ^ Cooke, 1988, p.180
- ^ Zonneveld, 1968, p.205
- ^ Gómez Londoño, 2005, p.281
- ^ (in Spanish) Por qué se hunde la Sabana de Bogotá - El Tiempo
- ^ a b c d e f García González et al., 2009, p.27
- ^ a b c d e f García González et al., 2009, p.50
- ^ a b García González et al., 2009, p.85
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Barrero et al., 2007, p.60
- ^ a b c d e f g h Barrero et al., 2007, p.58
- ^ Plancha 111, 2001, p.29
- ^ a b Plancha 177, 2015, p.39
- ^ a b Plancha 111, 2001, p.26
- ^ Plancha 111, 2001, p.24
- ^ Plancha 111, 2001, p.23
- ^ a b Pulido & Gómez, 2001, p.32
- ^ Pulido & Gómez, 2001, p.30
- ^ a b Pulido & Gómez, 2001, pp.21-26
- ^ Pulido & Gómez, 2001, p.28
- ^ Correa Martínez et al., 2019, p.49
- ^ Plancha 303, 2002, p.27
- ^ Terraza et al., 2008, p.22
- ^ Plancha 229, 2015, pp.46-55
- ^ Plancha 303, 2002, p.26
- ^ Moreno Sánchez et al., 2009, p.53
- ^ Mantilla Figueroa et al., 2015, p.43
- ^ Manosalva Sánchez et al., 2017, p.84
- ^ a b Plancha 303, 2002, p.24
- ^ a b Mantilla Figueroa et al., 2015, p.42
- ^ Arango Mejía et al., 2012, p.25
- ^ Plancha 350, 2011, p.49
- ^ Pulido & Gómez, 2001, pp.17-21
- ^ Plancha 111, 2001, p.13
- ^ Plancha 303, 2002, p.23
- ^ Plancha 348, 2015, p.38
- ^ Planchas 367-414, 2003, p.35
- ^ Toro Toro et al., 2014, p.22
- ^ Plancha 303, 2002, p.21
- ^ a b c d Bonilla et al., 2016, p.19
- ^ Gómez Tapias et al., 2015, p.209
- ^ a b Bonilla et al., 2016, p.22
- ^ a b Duarte et al., 2019
- ^ García González et al., 2009
- ^ Pulido & Gómez, 2001
- ^ García González et al., 2009, p.60
Bibliography
Geology
- Acosta Garay, Jorge E., and Carlos E. Ulloa Melo. 2002. Mapa Geológico del Departamento de Cundinamarca - 1:250,000 - Memoria explicativa, 1–108. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-05-06.
- Guerrero Uscátegui, Alberto Lobo. 1996. Estratigrafía del material no-consolidado en el subsuelo del nororiente de Santafé de Bogotá (Colombia) con algunas notas sobre historia geológica, 1–23. VII Congreso Colombiano de Geología - I Seminario sobre el Cuaternario.
- Guerrero Uscátegui, Alberto Lobo. 1993. Informe sobre la Cuenca Petrolífera de la Sabana de Bogotá, Colombia, 1–29. Sociedad Colombiana de Ingenieros.
- Guerrero Uscátegui, Alberto Lobo. 1992. Geología e Hidrogeología de Santafé de Bogotá y su Sabana, 1–20. Sociedad Colombiana de Ingenieros.
- Montoya Arenas, Diana María, and Germán Alfonso Reyes Torres. 2005. Geología de la Sabana de Bogotá, 1–104. INGEOMINAS.
Paleoecology and history
- Bürgl, Hans. 1956. Restos de Megatherium y otros fósiles de Quipile, Cundinamarca, 1–14. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-05-06.
- Cooke, Richard. 1998. Human settlement of Central America and northernmost South America (14,000-8000 BP). Quaternary International 49/50. 177–190. .
- Correal Urrego, Gonzalo. 1993. Nuevas evidencias culturales pleistocénicas y megafauna en Colombia. Boletín de Arqueología 1. 3–12. .
- Correal Urrego, Gonzalo. 1990. Evidencias culturales durante el Pleistocene y Holoceno de Colombia - Cultural evidences during the Pleistocene and Holocene of Colombia. Revista de Arqueología Americana 1. 69–89. Accessed 2017-05-06.
- Gómez Londoño, Ana María. 2005. Lo muisca: el diseño de una cartografía de centro. Chigys Mie: el mundo de los muiscas recreado por la condesa alemana Gertrud von Podewils Dürniz in "Muiscas: representaciones, cartografías y etnopolíticas de la memoria", 248–291. Universidad La Javeriana.
- Universidad de los AndesII. 27–34. .
- Montes, Natalia; O. Monsalve; G.W. Berger; J.L. Antinao; H. Giraldo; C. Silva; G. Ojeda; G. Bayona, and J. Escobar. 2015. A climatic trigger for catastrophic Pleistocene–Holocene debris flows in the Eastern Andean Cordillera of Colombia. Journal of Quaternary Science 30(3). 258–270. .
- De Porta, Jaime. 1961. La posición estratigráfica de la fauna de Mamíferos del pleistoceno de la Sabana de Bogotá. Boletín de Geología, Universidad Industrial de Santander 7. 37–54. Accessed 2017-05-06.
- De Porta, Jaime. 1960. Los Equidos fósiles de la Sabana de Bogotá. Boletín de Geología, Universidad Industrial de Santander 4. 51–78. Accessed 2017-05-06.
- Rutter, N.; A. Coronato; K. Helmens; J. Rabassa, and M. Zárate. 2012. Glaciations in North and South America from the Miocene to the Last Glacial Maximum, 1–67. Springer.
- Scott, David A., and Pieter Meyers. 1994. Archaeometry of Pre-Columbian sites and artifacts, 1–437. The Getty Conservation Institute.
- Torres, Vladimir; Jeff Vandenberghe, and Henry Hooghiemstra. 2005. An environmental reconstruction of the sediment infill of the Bogotá basin (Colombia) during the last 3 million years from abiotic and biotic proxies. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 226. 127–148. .
- Urrego, Dunia H.; Henry Hooghiemstra; Oscar Rama Corredor; Belén Martrat; Joan O. Grimalt; Lonnie Thompson; Mark B. Bush; Zaire González Carranza, and Jennifer Hanselman, Bryan Valencia and César Velásquez Ruiz. 2016. Millennial-scale vegetation changes in the tropical Andes using ecological grouping and ordination methods. Climate of the Past 12. 697–711. .
- Villarroel, Carlos; Ana Elena Concha, and Carlos Macía. 2001. El Lago Pleistoceno de Soatá (Boyacá, Colombia): Consideraciones estratigráficas, paleontológicas y paleoecológicas. Geología Colombiana 26. 79–93. .
- Zonneveld, Jan Isaak Samuel. 1968. Quaternary climatic changes in the Caribbean and N. South America, 203–208.
Proposed reclassification of gomphotheres
- Mothé, Dimila; Leonardo Dos Santos Avilla; Lidiane Asevedo; Leon Borges Silva; Mariane Rosa; Ricardo Labarca Encina; Esteban Souberlich; José Luis Soibelzon, and Sergio Roman Carrion, D. Ríos, Ascanio D. Rincón, Gina Cardoso de Oliveira and Renato Pereira Lopes. 2016a. Sixty years after ‘The mastodonts of Brazil’: The state of the art of South American proboscideans (Proboscidea, Gomphotheriidae). Quaternary International _. 1–7. Accessed 2017-05-07.
- Mothé, Dimila; Marco P. Ferretti, and Leonardo S. Avilla. 2016b. The Dance of Tusks: Rediscovery of Lower Incisors in the Pan-American Proboscidean Cuvieronius hyodon Revises Incisor Evolution in Elephantimorpha. PLoS ONE11. 1–19. Accessed 2017-05-07.
- Mothé, Dimila, and Leonardo S. Avilla. 2015. Mythbusting evolutionary issues on South American Gomphotheriidae (Mammalia: Proboscidea). Quaternary Science Reviews 110. 23–35. Accessed 2017-05-07.
- Mothé, Dimila; Leonardo S. Avilla; Mário Cozzuol, and Gisele R. Winck. 2012. Taxonomic revision of the Quaternary gomphotheres (Mammalia: Proboscidea: Gomphotheriidae) from the South American lowlands. Quaternary International 276-277. 2–7. Accessed 2017-05-07.
Maps
- Buitrago, José Alberto; Roberto Terraza M., and Fernando INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
- Gómez, J.; N.E. Montes; Á. Nivia, and H. Diederix. 2015. Plancha 5-09 del Atlas Geológico de Colombia 2015 – escala 1:500,000, 1. Servicio Geológico Colombiano. Accessed 2017-05-06.
- Various, Authors. 1997. Mapa geológico de Santa Fe de Bogotá – Geological Map Bogotá – 1:50,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-05-06.