Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire

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The territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire spans seven centuries.

Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire

The origins of the Ottomans can be traced back to the late 11th century when a few small Muslim emirates of Turkic origins and nomadic nature—called

Sultanate of Rum over the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert
, Beyliks sought an opportunity to override the Seljuk authority and declare their own sovereignty openly.

While the Byzantine Empire was to continue for nearly another four centuries, and the

Fatimids in Egypt and southern Syria were the main factors that helped the Beyliks take advantage of the situation and unite their principalities.[2]

Among those principalities was a tribe called

Söğüt, founded and led by Ertuğrul, which settled in the river valley of Sakarya. When Ertuğrul died c. 1280 his son Osman
succeeded him, establishing the state which would go on to become the Ottoman Empire.

1389

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1389
Main article: Murad I

Greek descent[3][4][5]
and became the ruler following his father's death in 1359.

1481

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1481
Main article: Mehmed II

Mehmet II (

Rûm until the conquest) for a short time from 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to 1481. At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople
(on Tuesday, 29 May 1453), bringing an end to the Byzantine Empire.

1520]

Main article: Selim I

Selim I (

Ottoman Turkish: سليم اوّل, Modern Turkish: I. Selim) also known as "the Grim" or "the Brave", or the best translation "the Stern", Yavuz in Turkish, the long name is Yavuz Sultan Selim; (1470/1 – September 22, 1520) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520.[6]

Selim's father was Bayezid II and his mother was

Dulkadirids
.

Selim carried the empire to the leadership of the

Ottoman empire
spanned almost 1,000 million acres (4,000,000 km2) (trebling during Selim's reign). These included some dependent, vassal states such as like Walachia from 1396, Crimea Khanate from 1475, Moldavia from 1501 and Algeria from 1520.

1566

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1566
Main article: Suleiman the Magnificent

Suleiman I (

Mediterranean to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.[8] Places which make up modern day Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Qatar
came under the control of the Ottomans.

Territorial extent of the Ottoman Empire in 1590.

1622

The

Persia and the Ottoman Empire on May 17, 1639. This accord ended the war that had begun in 1623 and was the last conflict in almost 150 years of intermittent wars between the two states over territorial disputes. The treaty divided territories in the Middle East by granting Yerevan in the southern Caucasus to Iran and all of Mesopotamia (including Baghdad
) to the Ottomans.

1672

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1672

In 1672 the Ottomans under Sultan Mehmed IV and Grand Vizier Fadil Ahmad Pasha conquered Podolia from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

1683

Territorial extent of the Ottoman Empire in 1683

The

Kiev region, the Bratslav region, and Podolia were left under Ottoman control. The 1683 battle of Vienna effectively ended Ottoman threats towards Central Europe, even though the empire remained strong in the Balkans for another hundred years. In the battle of Párkány the Ottoman lost the city of Esztergom
.

1699

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1699

The Treaty (Peace) of Karlowitz (Karlovci) was signed on January 26, 1699 in

Serbian Cyrillic: Сремски Карловци, Croatian: Srijemski Karlovci, German: Karlowitz, Turkish: Karlofça, Hungarian: Karlóca), a town in modern-day Serbia, concluding the Austro-Ottoman War of 1683–1697 in which the Ottoman side had finally been defeated at the Battle of Zenta
.

Following a two-month congress between the Ottoman Empire on one side and the Holy League of 1684, a coalition of various European powers including the Habsburg Monarchy, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Republic of Venice and Peter I's Alekseyevich (later known as The Great) Muscovite Russia, largely due to claims of being a self-professed defender of the Christian Slavs, a treaty was signed on January 26, 1699. The Ottomans ceded most of Hungary, Transylvania and Slavonia to Austria while Podolia returned to Poland. Most of Dalmatia passed to Venice, along with the Morea (the

Peloponnesus peninsula) and Crete
, which the Ottomans regained in the Treaty of Passarowitz of 1718.

1718

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1718

The

Cyrillic: Пожаревац, German: Passarowitz, Turkish: Pasarofça, Hungarian: Pozsarevác), a town in modern Serbia, on July 21, 1718 between the Ottoman Empire on one side and the Habsburg monarchy of Austria and the Republic of Venice
on the other.

During the years 1714–1718, the Ottomans had been successful against Venice in Greece and Crete, but had been defeated at Petrovaradin (1716) by the Austrian troops of Prince Eugene of Savoy.

The treaty reflected the military situation. The Ottoman Empire lost the

Peloponnesus peninsula and on Crete, gained by the Treaty of Karlowitz, retaining only the Ionian Islands, cities of Preveza and Arta and Dalmatia. Northern Bosnia, Serbia including Belgrade and Lesser Walachia were regained by Ottoman Empire in 1739 by the Treaty of Belgrade
.

1739

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1739

1774

The

Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774.[10]

The treaty was by far the most humiliating blow to the once-mighty Ottoman realm. The Ottomans ceded the part of the

Kabarda region in the Caucasus
.

  • Crimean Khanate
    Crimean Khanate
  • Dnieper River
    Dnieper River
  • Southern Bug
    Southern Bug

The Ottomans also lost the Crimean Khanate, to which they were forced to grant independence. The Khanate, while nominally independent, was dependent on Russia and was formally annexed into the Russian Empire in 1783. The treaty also granted Russia several non-geographic items. It eliminated restrictions over Russian access to the Azov Sea (the 1739 Treaty of Belgrade had given Russia territory adjacent to the Azov Sea but had prohibited it from fortifying the area or using the sea for shipping.)

1792

The Treaty of Jassy, signed at Jassy (Iaşi) in Moldavia (presently in Romania), was a pact between the Russian and Ottoman Empires ending the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–92 and confirming Russia's increasing dominance in the Black Sea. The treaty was signed on January 9, 1792 by Grand Vizier Yusuf-Pasha and Prince Bezborodko (who had succeeded Prince Potemkin as the head of the Russian delegation when Potemkin died). The treaty recognized Russia's 1783 annexation of the Crimean Khanate and transferred Yedisan to Russia making the Dniester the Russo-Turkish frontier in Europe, and leaving the Asiatic frontier (Kuban River) to the East.

  • Yedisan or Jedisan on this map ceded to Russia
    Yedisan or Jedisan on this map ceded to Russia
  • Asiatic frontier, or Kuban River Russian border to the East
    Asiatic frontier, or Kuban River Russian border to the East

1798

Led by

Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798 France invaded Egypt
. While forced to leave in 1800, they had a great social impact on the country and its culture.

1801

The Turks struggle to hold onto Egypt against a civil war between the Albanians, Mamelukes, and Turks.

1812

The

Napoleon launched his invasion of Russia
.

  • Bessarabia
    Bessarabia

1817

Rise of nationalism in the Balkans
Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire

The Second Serbian Uprising (1815–1817) was a second phase of the

Serbian revolution against the Ottoman Empire, which erupted shortly after the re-annexation of the country to the Ottoman Empire, in 1813. The occupation was enforced following the defeat of the First Serbian Uprising (1804–1813), during which Serbia existed as a de facto independent state for over a decade. The second revolution ultimately resulted in Serbian semi-independence from the Ottoman Empire. Principality of Serbia
was established, governed by its own Parliament, Constitution and its own royal dynasty. De jure independence followed during the second half of the 19th century.

1829

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1829
  • The creation of a separate
    Great Powers in the London Protocol
    .
  • The 1829 Treaty of Adrianople, without overturning Ottoman suzerainty, placed Wallachia and Moldavia under Russian military rule, awarding them the first common institutions and the semblance of a constitution. The Treaty of Adrianople also gave Russia most of the eastern shore of the Black Sea and the whole delta of or mouth of the Danube River. Turkey recognized Russian sovereignty over Georgia and parts of present-day Armenia.

1830

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1830

But another, more serious matter enraged the Dey. France had the commercial concession of a stockhouse in La Calle, and, by the intermediary of its representative Deval, had engaged itself not to fortify it. However, Paris did not respect its engagements. The Dey first requested explanations by sending a letter to the French government, who chose not to respond to him. Thus, the Dey orally asked the reasons behind this disrespect of their conventions to the French consul, who refused to respond to him.

The Dey responded to French disdain by hitting the consul Deval with his fan on April 30, 1827. This led to the rupture of diplomatic relations between France and the Dey, although the financial dealings between Deval and the Bacri-Busnach, as well as the Calle fortifications affairs were the real causes of the hostility.

Thereafter, the government of

Count of Villèle, President of the Council, and the monarch's heir opposed themselves to it. The Restoration finally decided to blockade Algiers for three years. But the important tonnage of French ships forced them to keep away from the coasts[vague], while the Barbary pilots
could easily exploit the geography of the coast. Before the failure of the blockade, the Restoration decided on January 31, 1830 to engage a military expedition against Algiers.

The French troops took the advantage on June 19, during the battle of Staoueli, and entered in Algiers on July 5, 1830, after a three-week campaign. The Dey Hussein accepted capitulation in exchange of his freedom and the offer to retain possession of his personal wealth. Five days later, he exiled himself with his family, on board of a French ship heading for the Italian peninsula, then under the control of the Austrian Empire. 2,500 janissaries also quit the Algerian territories, heading for Asia, on July 11,. After 313 years of occupation, the Ottomans abandoned the Regency in Algiers and therefore the administration of the country, which they had taken care of since 1517.

1856

The Crimean War (1853–1856) was fought between Imperial Russia on one side and an alliance of France, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire on the other. Most of the conflict took place on the Crimean Peninsula, with additional actions occurring in western Turkey, the Baltic Sea region and Kamchatka.

  • Territory restored to Turkey and Moldavia in 1856
    Territory restored to Turkey and Moldavia in 1856

1859

The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person – Alexandru Ioan Cuza.

1862

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1862

On February 5, 1862 (January 24, Old Style) the two principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were formally united to form Romania, with Bucharest as its capital.

1878

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1878

Ending the

France, Germany, Italy, Russia and the Ottoman Empire under Abdul Hamid II revised the Treaty of San Stefano
signed on March 3, of the same year.

The treaty recognized the complete independence of the principalities of

Great Powers immediately rejected the Treaty of San Stefano: they feared that a large Slavic country in the Balkans would serve Russian interests. Most of northern Thrace was included in the autonomous region of Eastern Rumelia, whereas the rest of Thrace and all of Macedonia
were returned under the sovereignty of the Ottomans.

On the other hand, between 1840-1880 period; Ottoman vassal-Khedivate of Egypt and Ottoman troops conquered Soudan,some parts of Ethiophia, Eritrea and Northern Somalia. They co-administrated these places.

The borders of Ottoman vassal Khedivate of Egypt
  • The Moldavian-Russian boundary in 1856/1857
    The Moldavian-Russian boundary in 1856/1857
  • Balkan changes from 1856 to 1878
    Balkan changes from 1856 to 1878
  • Congress of Berlin
    Congress of Berlin

1881

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1881
  • In the spring of 1881, the French army occupied Tunisia, claiming that Tunisian troops had crossed the border to Algeria, France's primary colony in Northern Africa. Italy, also interested in Tunisia, protested, but did not risk a war with France. On May 12, of that year, Tunisia was officially made a French protectorate with the signature of the Treaty of Bardo by Muhammad III as-Sadiq.
  • In 1881 the Ottoman Empire ceded most of
    Arta Prefecture
    ) to Greece.
  • Soudan, Mehdi revolt; Ottoman vassal Khedivate of Egypt lost the control of Soudan.
  • Political turbulence and financial problems in Khedivate of Egypt.

1882

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1882

With Egypt heading towards bankruptcy, the United Kingdom seized control of Egypt's government in 1882 to protect its financial interests, especially those in the

Battle of Tel el-Kebir
, British troops reached Cairo, eliminated the nationalist government and disbanded the Egyptian military. Technically, Egypt remained an Ottoman province until 1914, when Britain formally declared a protectorate over Egypt and deposed Egypt's last khedive, Abbas II. His uncle, Husayn Kamil, was appointed as Sultan in his place. But in reality Egypt and Soudan was lost to the Turks.

After that, Britain involved to Mehdis War in Soudan. In 3 years time, Ottoman Empire lost all co-administrated territories with Egypt in Africa such as North Somalia, Eritrea and Northern Ethiopia. The last only remnant Ottoman territory in Africa was "Ottoman Tripolitania."

1908

The

Young Turk revolution resulted in the loss of the Ottoman province of Bosnia-Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary, which at any rate had militarily occupied the region since 1878. Moreover, the tributary Principality of Bulgaria declared independence from the Ottoman Empire. Bulgaria simultaneously annexed the autonomous Ottoman Province of Eastern Rumelia
(of which the Prince of Bulgaria had been Governor-General since 1885). Thus was Bulgaria lost to the Ottomans after more than 500 years of continuous rule.

1912

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1912, after Libya was lost in the Turco-Italian War, and on the eve of the First Balkan War

The Italo-Turkish or Turco-Italian War (also known in Italy as guerra di Libia, "the Libyan war", and in Turkey as Trablusgarp Savaşı) was fought between the Ottoman Empire and Italy from September 29, 1911 to October 18, 1912. Italy seized the Ottoman provinces of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, together forming what became known as Libya.There was no longer any Ottoman territory left in Africa. Following the First Balkan War, the Autonomous Principality of Samos, an Ottoman tributary state, was annexed to Greece in November 1912. See figure, right.

Italy also gained the primarily Greek-speaking

Dodecanese archipelago
near Anatolia, including the Isle of Rhodes. See figure, below.

1913

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1913

The Balkan Wars were two wars in Southeast Europe in 1912–1913 in the course of which the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Montenegro, Greece, and Serbia) first conquered Ottoman-held Macedonia, Albania and most of Thrace and then fell out over the division of the spoils. In the First Balkan War, the Ottomans lost practically all of their remaining territory in Europe, with the exception of Constantinople and its immediate environs. In the Second Balkan War, they recaptured some land to the north and west up to Adrianople (Edirne), comprising modern-day East Thrace.

After the Second Balkan War, the Ottomans were removed from Albania and there was a possibility of some of the lands being absorbed by Serbia and the southern tip by Greece. This decision angered the Italians, who did not want Serbia to have an extended coastline, and it also angered the Austro-Hungarians, who did not want a powerful Serbia on their southern border. Despite Serbian, Montenegrin, and Greek occupation forces on the ground, and under immense pressure from Austria-Hungary, it was decided that the country should not be divided but instead consolidated into the Principality of Albania. In the aftermath of the Balkan wars, Crete joined Greece on December 1, 1913.

Ibn Saud completed his conquest of the Nejd and the eastern coast of Arabia in 1912 and in 1913 took Al-Hasa from Ottomans who had controlled the area since 1871.

1914

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1914

Following the Ottoman declaration of war on the Allies in November 1914, Britain formally annexed Cyprus, which it had occupied since 1878. Egypt (along with the Sudan) also finally ceased to be de jure Ottoman territory at the same time, being elevated to a

Sultanate
.

1920

Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1920
Main article: Treaty of Sèvres

The Treaty of Sèvres (August 10, 1920) was the

Turkish national movement. The Treaty of Sèvres was annulled in the course of the Turkish War of Independence and the parties signed and ratified the superseding Treaty of Lausanne
in 1923.

1923

The Treaty of Lausanne (July 24, 1923) was a

successor of the Ottoman Empire.[14][15][16]

  • Treaty of Lausanne
    Treaty of Lausanne

See also

References

  1. ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4
    .
  2. ISBN 978-0-521-29163-7
    .
  3. ^ The Fall of Constantinople, Steven Runciman, Cambridge University Press, p.36
  4. ^ The Nature of the Early Ottoman State, Heath W. Lowry, 2003 SUNY Press, p.153
  5. ^ History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Stanford Jay Shaw, Cambridge University Press, p.24
  6. ^ Yavuz Sultan Selim Biography Retrieved 2007-09-16 Archived September 29, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  7. ^ The Rise of the Turks and the Ottoman Empire Archived June 28, 2012, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 2007-09-16
  8. ISBN 978-0-312-18708-8
    .
  9. ^ Henry Smith Williams (1909). The Historians' History of the World. Hooper and Jackson LTD. p. 410.
  10. ^ Ömer Lütfi Barkan (1985). Ord. Prof. Ömer Lütfi Barkan'a armağan. Istanbul University. p. 48.
  11. ^ The Times (London), 27. Idem., Jan 30, 1928, Editorial.
  12. ^ "Treaty of Lausanne - World War I Document Archive". wwi.lib.byu.edu. Retrieved March 9, 2022.
  13. S2CID 143692430
    .
  14. ISBN 9781610696883
    .
  15. ISBN 978-9004158825
    .
  16. ^ Treaty of Peace with Turkey signed at Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland, July 24, 1923, retrieved November 28, 2012{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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