Volcanism of Canada
Volcanic activity is a major part of the geology of Canada and is characterized by many types of volcanic landform, including lava flows, volcanic plateaus, lava domes, cinder cones, stratovolcanoes, shield volcanoes, submarine volcanoes, calderas, diatremes, and maars, along with less common volcanic forms such as tuyas and subglacial mounds.
Though
Volcanic activity is responsible for many of Canada's geological and geographical features and
Eruption styles and volcano formations
Hawaiian eruptions | ||
---|---|---|
Phreatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions | [11] The extreme temperature of the magma causes near-instantaneous evaporation, resulting in an explosion of steam, water, ash, rocks and volcanic bombs.[11] The temperature of the rock fragments can range from cold to incandescent. If magma is included, the term phreatomagmatic may be used. Phreatomagmatic eruptions occasionally create broad, low-relief volcanic craters called maars.[12] These explosion craters are interpreted to have formed above rubble-filled volcanic pipes called diatremes; deep erosion of a maar presumably would expose a diatreme.[13] Maars range in size from 61 to 1,981 metres (200–6,499 ft) across and from 9 to 198 metres (30–650 ft) deep and are commonly filled with water to form a crater lake.[13] Fiftytwo Ridge at the southeastern end of Wells Gray Provincial Park in southeastern British Columbia is an example of a volcano containing lake-filled maars.[14] Most maars have low rims composed of a mixture of loose fragments of volcanic rocks and rocks torn from the walls of the diatreme.[13] Phreatic explosions can be accompanied by carbon dioxide or hydrogen sulfide gas emissions.[15] | Phreatic eruptions occur when rising magma makes contact with ground or surface water.|
Subglacial eruptions | meltwater.[12] The resulting meltwater would quickly harden the lava to produce pillow-shaped masses called pillow lava.[12] In places, the pillow lava will fracture to create other types of volcanic deposits called pillow breccia, tuff breccia, and hyaloclastite.[12] If magma intruded and melted a vertical pipe through the overlying glacier, the partially molten mass would cool as a large block with gravity flattening its upper surface to form a flat-topped, steep-sided subglacial volcano called a tuya.[12] The term tuya originates from Tuya Butte in far northern British Columbia.[12] While still in graduate school in 1947, Canadian geologist William Henry Mathews coined the term "tuya" to refer to these distinctive volcanic formations and was one of the first people on Earth to describe in detail these types of subglacial volcanoes.[12] Tuya Butte is the first such landform analyzed in the geological literature, and its name has since become standard worldwide among volcanologists in referring to and writing about tuyas.[12][16] Other subglacial volcanoes, including subglacial mounds, are formed when the erupted magma is not hot enough to melt through the overlying glacial ice.[12] Once the glaciers melt away, the tuyas and subglacial mounds would reappear with a distinctive shape as a result of their confinement within glacial ice.[12]
Because volcanic activity in Western and Northern Canada was contemporaneous with the ebb and flow of past glaciations, other volcanoes display ice-contact features. Cordilleran Ice Sheet existed in this area between 0.8 and one million years ago.[20]
| Subglacial eruptions occur when lava erupts under large portions of glacial ice. As lava erupts under a large glacier, the heat of the lava would immediately start to melt the overlying glacial ice to produce |
Submarine eruptions | ||
Pelèan eruptions | ||
Plinian eruptions |
Eastern Canada
The 2,677‑million-year-old
The Archean Red Lake greenstone belt in western Ontario consists of basaltic and komatiitic volcanics ranging in age from 2,925 to 2,940 million years old and younger rhyolite-andesite volcanics ranging in age from 2,730 to 2,750 million years old.[34] It is situated in the western portion of the Uchi Subprovince, a volcanic sequence comprising a number of greenstone belts.[35]
The 1884- to 1870‑million-year-old Circum-Superior Belt[36] constitutes a large igneous province extending for more than 3,400 kilometres (2,100 mi) from the Labrador Trough in Labrador and northeastern Quebec though the Cape Smith Belt in northern Quebec, the Belcher Islands in southern Nunavut, the Fox River and Thompson belts in northern Manitoba, the Winnipegosis komatiite belt in central Manitoba, and on the southern side of the Superior craton in the Animikie Basin of northwestern Ontario.[37][38][39] Two volcano-sedimentary sequences exist in the Labrador Trough with ages of 2,170–2,140 million years and 1,883–1,870 million years.[37] In the Cape Smith Belt, two volcanic groups range in age from 2,040 to 1,870 million years old called the Povungnituk volcano-sedimentary Group and the Chukotat Group.[37] The Belcher Islands in eastern Hudson Bay contain two volcanic sequences known as the Flaherty and Eskimo volcanics.[37] The Fox River Belt consists of volcanics, sills and sediments some 1,883 million years old while magmatism of the Thompson Belt is dated to 1,880 million years old.[37] To the south lies the 1,864‑million-year-old Winnipegosis komatiites.[37] In the Animikie Basin near Lake Superior, volcanism is dated 1,880 million years old.[37]
During the Mesoproterozoic era of the Precambrian eon 1,109 million years ago, northwestern Ontario began to split apart to form the Midcontinent Rift System, also called the Keweenawan Rift.[40] Lava flows created by the rift in the Lake Superior area were formed from basaltic magma.[40] The upwelling of this magma was the result of a hotspot which produced a triple junction in the vicinity of Lake Superior. The hotspot made a dome that covered the Lake Superior area.[40] Voluminous basaltic lava flows erupted from the central axis of the rift, similar to the rifting that formed the Atlantic Ocean.[40] A failed arm extends 150 kilometres (93 mi) north into mainland Ontario where it forms a geological formation known as the Nipigon Embayment.[41] This failed arm includes Lake Nipigon, the largest lake entirely within the boundaries of Ontario.[41]
Periods of volcanic activity occurred throughout central Canada during the
About 250 million years ago during the early
The Fogo Seamounts, located 500 km (311 mi) offshore of Newfoundland to the southwest of the Grand Banks, consists of submarine volcanoes with dates extending back to the Early Cretaceous period at least 143 million years ago.[49] They may have one or two origins. The Fogo Seamounts could have formed along fracture zones in the Atlantic seafloor because of the large number of seamounts on the North American continental shelf.[49] The other explanation for their origin is they formed above a mantle plume associated with the Canary or Azores hotspots in the Atlantic Ocean, based on the existence of older seamounts to the northwest and younger seamounts to the southeast.[49] The existence of flat-topped seamounts throughout the Fogo Seamount chain indicate some of these seamounts would once have stood above sea level as islands that would have been volcanically active. Their flatness is due to coastal erosion, such as waves and winds.[49] Other submarine volcanoes offshore of Eastern Canada include the poorly studied Newfoundland Seamounts.[49]
Western Canada
The
The Cretaceous period 145-66 million years ago was a period for active kimberlite volcanism in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin of Alberta and Saskatchewan. The Fort à la Corne kimberlite field in central Saskatchewan formed 104 to 95 million years ago during the Early Cretaceous.[51] Unlike most kimberlite fields on Earth, the Fort à la Corne kimberlite field formed during more than one eruptive event.[52] Its kimberlites are among the most complete examples on Earth, preserving kimberlite pipes and maar volcanoes.[53] The Northern Alberta kimberlite province consists of three kimberlite fields known as the Birch Mountains, Buffalo Head Hills and the Mountain Lake cluster.[54] The Birch Mountains kimberlite field consists of eight kimberlite pipes known as Phoenix, Dragon, Xena, Legend and Valkyrie, dating approximately 75 million years old.[54] The Buffalo Head Hills kimberlite field was dominated by explosive kimberlite volcanism from 88 million years ago to 81 million years ago, forming maars.[51] Kimberlites of the Buffalo Head Hills field are similar to those associated with the Fort à la Corne kimberlite field in central Saskatchewan.[51] The kimberlite pipes of the Mountain Lake cluster were formed during a similar timespan with the Birch Mountains field 77 million years ago.[54]
Formation of the Pacific Northwest
The Canadian portion of the Pacific Northwest began forming during the early Jurassic period when a group of active volcanic islands collided against a pre-existing continental margin and coastline of Western Canada.[55] These volcanic islands, known as the Intermontane Islands by geoscientists, were formed on a pre-existing tectonic plate called the Intermontane Plate about 245 million years ago by subduction of the former Insular Plate to its west during the Triassic period.[55] This subduction zone records another subduction zone called the Intermontane Trench under an ancient ocean between the Intermontane Islands and the former continental margin of Western Canada called the Slide Mountain Ocean.[55] This arrangement of two parallel subduction zones is unusual in that very few twin subduction zones exist on Earth; the Philippine Mobile Belt off the eastern coast of Asia is an example of a modern twin subduction zone.[55] As the Intermontane Plate drew closer to the pre-existing continental margin by ongoing subduction under the Slide Mountain Ocean, the Intermontane Islands drew closer to the former continental margin and coastline of Western Canada, supporting a volcanic arc on the former continental margin of Western Canada.[55] As the North American Plate drifted west and the Intermontane Plate continued to drift east to the ancient continental margin of Western Canada, the Slide Mountain Ocean began to close by ongoing subduction under the Slide Mountain Ocean.[55] This subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely about 180 million years ago, ending the arc volcanism on the ancient continental margin of Western Canada and the Intermontane Islands collided, forming a long chain of deformed volcanic and sedimentary rock called the Intermontane Belt, which consists of deeply cut valleys, high plateaus, and rolling uplands.[55] This collision also crushed and folded sedimentary and igneous rocks, creating a mountain range called the Kootenay Fold Belt which existed in far eastern British Columbia.[55]
After the sedimentary and igneous rocks were folded and crushed, it resulted in the creation of a new continental shelf and coastline.[55] The Insular Plate continued to subduct under the new continental shelf and coastline about 130 million years ago during the mid Cretaceous period after the formation of the Intermontane Belt, supporting a new continental volcanic arc called the Omineca Arc.[55] Magma rising from the Omineca Arc successfully connected the Intermontane Belt to the mainland of Western Canada, forming a chain of volcanoes in British Columbia that existed discontinuously for about 60 million years.[55] The ocean lying offshore during this period is called the Bridge River Ocean.[55] It was also during this period when another group of active volcanic islands existed along the newly built continental shelf and coastline.[56] These volcanic islands, known as the Insular Islands, were formed on the Insular Plate by subduction of the former Farallon Plate to its west during the early Paleozoic era.[56] As the North American Plate drifted west and the Insular Plate drifted east to the continental margin of Western Canada, the Bridge River Ocean began to close by ongoing subduction under the Bridge River Ocean.[56] This subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely 115 million years ago, ending the Omineca Arc volcanism and the Insular Islands collided, forming the Insular Belt.[56] Compression resulting from this collision crushed, fractured and folded rocks along the continental margin.[56] The Insular Belt then welded onto the continental margin by magma that eventually cooled to create a large mass of igneous rock, creating a new continental margin.[56] This large mass of igneous rock is the largest granite outcropping in North America.[56]
The Farallon Plate continued to subduct under the new continental margin of Western Canada after the Insular Plate and Insular Islands collided with the former continental margin, supporting a new chain of volcanoes on the mainland of Western Canada called the Coast Range Arc about 100 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous epoch.[57] Magma ascending from the Farallon Plate under the new continental margin burned their way upward through the newly accreted Insular Belt, injecting huge quantities of granite into older igneous rocks of the Insular Belt.[56] At the surface, new volcanoes were built along the continental margin.[56] The basement of this arc was likely Early Cretaceous and Late Jurassic age intrusions from the Insular Islands.[57]
One of the major aspects that changed early during the Coast Range Arc was the status of the northern end of the Farallon Plate, a portion now known as the Kula Plate.[56] About 85 million years ago, the Kula Plate broke off from the Farallon Plate to form an area of seafloor spreading called the Kula-Farallon Ridge.[56] This change apparently had some important ramifications for regional geologic evolution. When this change was completed, Coast Range Arc volcanism returned and sections of the arc were uplifted considerably in latest Cretaceous time.[58] This started a period of mountain building that affected much of western North America called the Laramide orogeny.[59] In particular a large area of dextral transpression and southwest-directed thrust faulting was active from 75 to 66 million years ago.[55] Much of the record of this deformation has been overridden by Tertiary age structures and the zone of Cretaceous dextral thrust faulting appears to have been widespread.[55] It was also during this period when massive amounts of molten granite intruded highly deformed ocean rocks and assorted fragments from pre-existing island arcs, largely remnants of the Bridge River Ocean.[56] This molten granite burned the old oceanic sediments into a glittering medium-grade metamorphic rock called schist.[56] The older intrusions of the Coast Range Arc were then deformed under the heat and pressure of later intrusions, turning them into layered metamorphic rock known as gneiss.[56] In some places, mixtures of older intrusive rocks and the original oceanic rocks have been distorted and warped under intense heat, weight and stress to create unusual swirled patterns known as migmatite, appearing to have been nearly melted in the procedure.[56]
Volcanism began to decline along the length of the arc about 60 million years ago during the
Cascadia subduction zone complexes
As the last of the Kula Plate decayed and the Farallon Plate advanced back into this area from the south, it once again started to subduct under the continental margin of Western Canada 37 million years ago, supporting a chain of volcanoes called the
The four-million-year-old
The poorly studied
The
British Columbia plume and rift complexes
The Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province of northwestern British Columbia, also called the Stikine Volcanic Belt, is the most active volcanic region in Canada.[66] It comprises a large number of small cinder cones and associated lava plains, and three large, compositionally diverse volcanoes, known as the Level Mountain, the Mount Edziza volcanic complex, and Hoodoo Mountain.[3] In the south the volcanic province is somewhat narrow and crosses diagonally through the northwesterly structural trend of the Coast Mountains.[3] Farther north it is less clearly defined, forming a large arch that swings westward through central Yukon.[3] Volcanoes within the British Columbia portion of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province are disposed along short, northerly trending en-echelon segments which, in the British Columbia portion of the volcanic province, are unmistakably involved with north-trending rift structures including synvolcanic grabens and half-grabens similar to the East African Rift, which extends from the Afar Triple Junction southward across eastern Africa.[3] The Northern Cordilleran rift system formed as a result of the North American continent being stretched by extensional forces as the Pacific Plate slides northward along the Queen Charlotte Fault to the west, on its way to the Aleutian Trench, which extends along the southern coastline of Alaska and the adjacent waters of northeastern Siberia off the coast of Kamchatka Peninsula.[66] As the continental crust stretches, the near-surface rocks fracture along steeply dipping cracks parallel to the rift known as faults. Hot basaltic magma rises along these fractures to create passive lava eruptions. The compositions of lavas in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province are mantle-derived alkali olivine basalt, lesser hawaiite and basanite, which form the large shield volcanoes and small cinder cones throughout the volcanic province.[3] Many of them contain inclusions of lherzolite.[3] The large central volcanoes of the volcanic province consist largely of trachyte, pantellerite, and comendite lavas.[3] These lava compositions were formed by fractionation of primary alkali basalt magma in crustal reservoirs.[3] A region of continental rifting, such as the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, would support the development of high-level reservoirs of sufficient size and thermal capacity to sustain prolonged fractionation.[3]
The
The
The Endeavor Segment, an active rift zone of the larger
Northern Canada
Vast volumes of basaltic lava covered Northern Canada in the form of a
During the
The Sverdrup Basin Magmatic Province of northern Nunavut forms a large igneous province 95 to 92 million years old in the Canadian Arctic.[73] Part of the larger High Arctic Large Igneous Province, it consists of two volcanic formations called the Ellesmere Island Volcanics and Strand Fiord Formation. In the Strand Fiord Formation, flood basalt lavas reach a thickness of at least 1 kilometre (3,300 ft).[73] Flood basalts of the Sverdrup Basin Magmatic Province are similar to terrestrial flood basalts associated with breakup of continents, indicating the Sverdrup Basin Magmatic Province formed as a result of rifting of the Arctic Ocean and when the large underwater Alpha Ridge was still geologically active.[73]
Widespread basalt volcanism occurred between 60.9 and 61.3 million years ago in the northern
More recent volcanic activity has created a northwest trending line of volcanic rocks called the
The Yukon portion of the northwest trending
Economic geology
Greenstone belts
The predominantly volcanic Archean and Proterozoic greenstone belts throughout Canada are important for estimating Canada's mineral potential.[22] Consequently, geologists study greenstone belts to understand the volcanoes and the environment in which they erupted, and to provide a working model for mineral exploration.[22] The 1,904‑ to 1,864‑million-year-old Flin Flon greenstone belt of central Manitoba and east-central Saskatchewan is one of the largest Paleoproterozoic age volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposits in the world, containing 27 copper-zinc-(gold) deposits from which more than 183 million tonnes of sulfide ore have been mined.[78] The 2,575‑million-year-old Yellowknife greenstone belt in the Northwest Territories is the host for world-class gold deposits with total production of 15 million ounces of gold.[79] In the Archean Hope Bay greenstone belt of western Nunavut, three large gold deposits have been known as Doris, Boston and Madrid,[80] while the 2,677‑million-year-old Abitibi greenstone belt of Ontario and Quebec is the second most prolific gold producing area on Earth; the most prolific gold producing area is the Witwatersrand hill range in South Africa.[81]
Intrusions
Other magmatic formations, such as
Diatremes
The kimberlite
Recent activity
Canada continues to be volcanically active, but the dispersed population has witnessed few eruptions due to the remoteness of the volcanoes and their low level of activity.
The Mount Meager massif in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt of southwestern British Columbia was the source for a massive (
The massive Mount Edziza volcanic complex in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province of northern British Columbia has had more than 20 eruptions throughout the past 10,000 years (Holocene), including
An eruption was reported by placer miners on November 8, 1898 in the Atlin Volcanic Field of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province adjacent to Ruby Mountain volcano 80 kilometres (50 mi) south of Gladys Lake when volcanic ash was said to be falling for many days.[124][125] During the eruption the adjacent placer miners were able to work at nights due to incandescent glow from the eruption.[124] A news report published on December 1, 1898 by the American newspaper publisher The New York Times stated: Kinslee and T. P. James, Denver mining men who with Col. Hughes of Rossland have just returned from Alaska, report that a volcano is in active eruption about fifty miles from Atlin City. No name has yet been given to the volcano, but the officials of Atlin are preparing for a trip of inspection and will christen it. It is said to be the second in a string of four mountains lying fifty miles due south of Lake Gladys, all of which are more than 1,400 feet high.[126] In 1898 the Atlin area was in dispute with the Alaska-British Columbia boundary, leading American news broadcasters stating the Atlin area was in Alaska rather than in northwestern British Columbia. This Alaska-British Columbia boundary dispute was eventually resolved by arbitration in 1903 and no evidence for the 1898 eruption has been found, leading researchers to speculate about the eruption and report it as uncertain.[124]
The Volcano at the southern end of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province just north of the Alaska-British Columbia boundary is probably the youngest in Canada.[127] It is a poorly built cinder cone made of loose volcanic ash, lapilli-sized tephra and volcanic bombs.[127][128] Lying above a remote mountain ridge in the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains, it is responsible for lava flow eruptions in 1904 and older that traveled south 5 kilometres (3 mi) through river valleys where they crossed the border into the U.S. state of Alaska and dammed the Blue River, a short tributary of the Unuk River.[127] In doing so it formed several small lakes.[127] This eruption had a massive effect on fish, plant and animal inhabitants of the valley, but there is no record of its impact on people, most likely because people were not in the remote area.[2] The entire length of the lava flows are at least 22 kilometres (14 mi) and still contain the original lava features from when they were erupted, including pressure ridges and lava channels.[127][128] However, sections of the lava flows have collapsed into underlying lava tubes to form cavities.[128] Tephra and scoria from The Volcano covers adjacent mountain ridges and even through it is very young, it has been reduced by erosion from alpine glacial ice found in the heavily glaciated Coast Mountains.[128] The estimated volume of lava and ash from The Volcano is 2.2 km3 (1 cu mi).[128]
A series of earthquakes of less than magnitude 3.0 were recorded by seismographs in the Baezaeko River region 20 kilometres (12 mi) west of Nazko Cone in the Anahim Volcanic Belt on October 9, 2007.[129] The cause of these earthquakes was magma intruding into rock 25 kilometres (16 mi) below the surface.[129] Since then more than 1,000 small earthquakes have been recorded.[130] Because of the small size of the earthquake swarms, Natural Resources Canada has added more seismographs in the region for better location and depth accuracy.[129] However, the size and number of the 2007 earthquake swarms indicate there is currently no threat of an eruption.[129] Before magma could erupt in the area adjacent to Nazko Cone, it is expected the size and number of the earthquakes would rise considerably, presaging an eruption.[129]
Mitigation and vulnerability
In Canada, even though volcanoes pose significant threats to local communities and any sizable eruption would affect Canada's economy, the work of understanding the frequency and eruption characteristics at volcanoes in Canada is a slow process.
Growing awareness of volcanism, especially the threat from volcanoes in the United States, has led to a number of changes in the way Canadians are dealing with volcanic hazards. For example, The Barrier, an unstable lava dam retaining the Garibaldi Lake system of southwestern British Columbia, has in the past unleashed several debris flows, most recently in 1855–1856.[133] This led to the evacuation of the small resort village of Garibaldi nearby and the relocation of residents to new recreational subdivisions away from the hazard zone.[133] Should The Barrier completely collapse, Garibaldi Lake would be entirely released and downstream damage in the Cheakamus and Squamish rivers would be considerable, including major damage to the town of Squamish and possibly an impact-wave on the waters of Howe Sound that would reach Vancouver Island. The Interagency Volcanic Event Notification Plan, Canada's volcanic emergency notification program, was established to outline the notification procedure of some of the main agencies that would be involved in response to a volcanic eruption in Canada, an eruption close to Canada's borders, or an eruption significant enough to have an effect on Canada and its people.[134] It focuses primarily on aviation safety because jet aircraft can quickly enter areas of volcanic ash.[2] The program notifies all impacted agencies that have to deal with volcanic events.[2] Aircraft are rerouted away from hazardous ash and people on the ground are notified of potential ash fall.[2]
Monitoring
Currently no volcanoes in Canada are monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active their magma chambers are.[132] An existing network of seismographs has been established to monitor tectonic earthquakes and is too far away to provide a good indication of what is happening beneath them.[132] It may sense an increase in activity if a volcano becomes very restless, but this may only provide a warning for a large eruption.[132] It might detect activity only once a volcano has started erupting.[132]
See also
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External links
- Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes
- CVO Menu - Canada Volcanoes and Volcanics
- Overview of Canadian volcanoes/Canada volcanoes
- Global Volcanism Program: Volcanoes of Canada and the western USA
- GVP: Volcanoes of Canada
- Erica A. Massey: A Comparative Study of Glaciovolcanic Palagonitization of Tholeitic and Alkaline Sideromelane in Helgafell, Icland, and Wells Gray-Clearwater Volcanic Filed, BC, Canada. B.Sc., The University of British Columbia, 2014