Zahir al-Umar
Zahir al-Umar | |
---|---|
ظاهر العمر | |
In office 1768–1775 | |
Preceded by | None |
Succeeded by | Jazzar Pasha (as governor Acre) |
Personal details | |
Born | 1689 or 1690 Acre, Sidon Eyalet, Ottoman Empire |
Relations | Banu Zaydan (family) |
Children |
|
Parent | Umar al-Zaydani |
Zahir al-Umar al-Zaydani, alternatively spelled Daher al-Omar or Dahir al-Umar (
Zahir withstood sieges and assaults by the Ottoman governors of
The wealth Zahir accumulated through monopolizing Palestine's cotton and olive oil trade to Europe financed his sheikhdom. For much of his rule, he oversaw a relatively efficient administration and maintained domestic security, although he faced and suppressed several rebellions by his sons. The aforementioned factors, along with Zahir's flexible taxation policies and his battlefield reputation made him popular among the local
Origins and early life
Zahir was born around 1690.
Zahir's killing of a man from Tiberias during a brawl in 1707 prompted Sa'd to move the family from the Tiberias area. They settled in
Sa'd and Zahir also gained respect from the people of
Rise and consolidation of power
Stronghold in the Galilee
Capture of Tiberias
Around 1730, the governor of Sidon and the rural sheikhs of
Not long after allying with the Saqr, Zahir initiated his takeover of Tiberias with the Bedouins' support. Zahir captured the town's
Northern and western expansion
Due to the relative justice and fairness of his rule, peasants from nearby areas moved to Zahir's domains or invited him to rule over them.
Zahir next moved on Safed, whose multazim, Muhammad al-Naf'i, surrendered the town around 1740, after prolonged negotiations and military pressure.[21][23] Control of the strategically situated town, with its citadel built on a high hill, gave the Zaydans command over the surrounding countryside.[23] Afterward, the fortified village of Bi'ina, which had withstood a siege by Zahir in 1739, was added to his domains through an agreement sealed by Zahir's marriage to the daughter of the village mukhtar (headman).[22] He also acquired the fortress of Suhmata through diplomacy,[24] followed by the nearby fortified village of Deir al-Qassi, after marrying the daughter of its sheikh, Abd al-Khaliq Salih.[25] All the above gains solidified his hold over the northern and eastern Galilee. Elsewhere, Sa'd had taken control of Deir Hanna, establishing his headquarters there, while their cousin Muhammad, who was already the multazim of Damun, added Shefa-Amr to his holdings, increasing the presence of the Zaydans in the western Galilee.[22][f]
Capture of Nazareth and conflict with Nablus
According to Marom et al, "Beginning in the 1740s CE [...] Dhahir al-‘Umar expanded his rule to the northern part of the valley and fortified adjacent villages, turning the valley into a borderland of conflict with the rulers of Jenin and Nablus.[27] Nazareth, a mostly Christian town, came under Zahir's control by the end of 1740, following his capture of Safed.[28] Philipp contends the extension of Zahir's rule southward toward Nazareth and the neighboring Marj Ibn Amer, the wide plain between the Galilee and Jabal Nablus through which the Damascus–Nablus trade routes passed, was a drawn-out process and the precise dating of the associated events is unclear.[29] Although it administratively belonged to the Sidon Eyalet, Nazareth was controlled by the rural chiefs of Nablus Sanjak, a district of the Damascus Eyalet. The town was the residence of Zahir's first, Damascene wife and the hometown of his second wife.[29][28] Through these connections, he forged good ties with its residents.[28] They preferred Zahir, who had a reputation for religious tolerance, over the chiefs and merchants of Nablus, who they viewed as oppressive or extortionary.[28]
The dominant clans of Jabal Nablus, especially the
Confrontations and respite with Damascus
Zahir's rise coincided with that of the
In September 1742, Sulayman Pasha
Sulayman Pasha's successor, his nephew
Control of Acre and Haifa
Zahir consolidated his authority over the port of Acre in a drawn-out process starting in the 1730s.[54] Joudah views Zahir's moves as "inevitable", considering he already controlled Acre's fertile countryside and needed "an outlet to the sea" and was motivated by "potential profits".[28] Zahir had commercial dealings with the French merchants of the city through his Acre-based partner, the Melkite merchant Yusuf al-Qassis.[54] His first contact with the merchants came in 1731 when he arranged the settlement of debts owed to them by his brother Sa'd.[55] Control of Acre would greatly improve his business potential, and the peace with Damascus under As'ad Pasha enabled Zahir to focus his military resources against the city.[56][57]
In 1743,
In 1757, Zahir had expanded his holdings southward, along Palestine's northern coastal plain, taking control of the villages of Haifa, Tira, and Tantura, and nearby Mount Carmel.[62][63] Ostensibly, Zahir captured the harbor village of Haifa to eliminate the base established there by Maltese pirates,[63] but he probably aimed to prevent the governors of Damascus from utilizing the port village, strategically positioned across the bay from Acre, as a launchpad against him, while also seeking another potential port for his domains.[48] While As'ad Pasha had not acted against Zahir's occupation of Haifa, Uthman Pasha sought to return the port to Damascene authority.[52][k] Acting on Uthman Pasha's request, the governor of Sidon, Nu'man Pasha, dispatched 30 Maghrebi mercenaries on a vessel captained by a Frenchman to capture Haifa in May 1761.[66] Upon arrival, Zahir had the ship confiscated, its soldiers arrested, and its captain fined. The issue over Haifa's annexation was smoothed over with the assistance of Yaqub Agha, a Constantinople-based official with friendly ties to Zahir. Yaqub Agha had a high-ranking official, Sulayman Agha, revoke the imperial order sanctioning Uthman Pasha's attempt to capture the Haifa coast.[52]
Family rebellions
To safeguard his interests in the Galilee, particularly after establishing headquarters in Acre, Zahir installed his sons at strategic fortresses across the region. In the 1760s, many of his sons increasingly struggled against him and each other to expand their holdings in anticipation of their aging father's death.[67]
In 1761, Zahir had Uthman assassinate Sa'd, hitherto his chief adviser and a key figure behind his successes, in exchange for control of Shefa-Amr.[68] Zahir reneged after Sa'd's killing, prompting Uthman and his full-brothers Ahmad and Sa'd al-Din to besiege Shefa-Amr in 1765, but they were repulsed.[69] In May 1766, Uthman renewed his rebellion against Zahir but was again defeated.[70] Mediation by Isma'il Shihab of Hasbaya culminated in a peace summit near Tyre where Zahir and Uthman reconciled and Uthman was given control of Nazareth.[71]
In September 1767, a conflict between Zahir and his son Ali, who controlled Safed, broke out over the former's refusal to cede the strategic fortress villages of Deir Hanna and Deir al-Qassi. Before the dispute, Ali had been a key supporter of his father, helping suppress dissent among his brothers and quashing external threats. Zahir's forces marched on Safed later that month, pressuring Ali to surrender. Zahir pardoned Ali, but gave him Deir al-Qassi.[72] The intra-family conflict resumed weeks later, with Ali and his full brother Sa'id poised against Zahir and Uthman. Ibrahim Sabbagh, Zahir's financial adviser, brokered a settlement giving Sa'id control of the villages of Tur'an and Hittin.[73] Ali held out and took over Deir Hanna, which Zahir previously denied him. Joined by Zahir's eldest son, Salibi, who controlled Tiberias, Ali defeated Zahir, who had demobilized his troops and was relying on local volunteers from Acre. Zahir remobilized his Maghrebi mercenaries and defeated Ali, prompting him to flee Deir Hanna in October. Nevertheless, he pardoned Ali for a fine and ceded him the fortress village.[74] By December 1767, Zahir's intra-family disputes had subsided.[75]
The rebellions by Zahir's sons were nearly always backed by the governor of Damascus, Uthman Pasha, in a bid to sustain the internal dissent and weaken Zahir.[76] The latter lodged complaints to the imperial government about Uthman Pasha's support for his rebellious sons at least once in 1765.[77] Zahir received the support of the governor of Sidon, Muhammad Pasha al-Azm, an opponent of Uthman Pasha who sought to restore the Azms to office in Damascus. While Sidon's support had no practical military value, the support of his nominal superior provided Zahir with official legitimacy amid his family's insurrections.[78]
Alliance with the Metawalis of Jabal Amil
Zahir's takeover of the Safed region and the western Galilee removed the barriers between him and the
Nasif and the other Metawali chiefs backed Zahir's son Uthman during his rebellion against him in 1766, and then his other son Ali in 1767.[82] Amid the conflict, Zahir captured the fortified Metawali-held villages of Bassa and Yaroun on the borders of Zaydani territory.[82] While the contemporary al-Rukayni and the near contemporary Mikha'il Sabbagh agree that the capture of the two villages were the cause of the subsequent battles between Zahir and Nasif, they diverge on the other details.[83] After a series of clashes, the two sides fought at the village of Tarbikha on 6 October 1766. While Sabbagh claims it ended in a victory for Zahir, al-Rukayni held Nasif was the decisive victor.[83] Thereafter, Zahir's Maghrebi mercenaries supposedly employed a ruse by capturing two of Nasif's yong sons from Nasif's headquarters, the Tebnine castle, compelling Nasif to negotiate terms.[84] This account is considered a local legend by the historian Stefan Winter,[82] and Philipp deems Rukayni more reliable for these events.[83]
Despite their conflict, Zahir and the Metawalis shared an interest in limiting the power of Sidon and keeping the Druze forces of Mount Lebanon at bay.[85] Zahir's son Uthman mediated an end to the conflict and secured a treaty between Zahir and Nasif.[75] Rukayni dates the treaty ceremony to 24 November 1767.[83] According to its terms, Zahir would keep control of Bassa and Yaroun,[79] he would represent the Metawalis in their fiscal and other relations with the governor of Sidon, and he reduced their tax obligations to Sidon by a quarter. He promised his backing for the Metawalis in any confrontation with the Shihabs and the Druze, in return for the Metawalis' military support.[83] In effect, though without official recognition, Zahir became the multazim of Jabal Amil, greatly expanding his territory.[85] The backing of some 10,000 Metawali fighters significantly boosted his military potential,[86] and the Metawalis "remained faithful allies ... to the end", in the words of Philipp, participating in fifteen subsequent campaigns against Zahir's foes.[85] The alliance secured Zahir's northern borders, allowing him to focus on operations in the south.[86]
Peak of power
In 1768, the Porte partially recognized or legitimized Zahir's de facto political position by granting him the title of 'Sheikh of Acre, Emir of Nazareth, Tiberias, Safed, and Sheikh of all Galilee'.[2] This recognition was tempered when Yaqub Agha was executed shortly after and Sulayman Agha died in 1770, depriving Zahir of close allies in Constantinople. In November 1770, Uthman Pasha engineered the replacement of Sidon's governor with his own son, Darwish Pasha, and succeeded in having his other son, Muhammad Pasha, appointed to Tripoli. Uthman Pasha was committed to ending Zahir's rule, which was left especially vulnerable with the loss of support in the imperial capital.[87] In response to threats from Damascus, Zahir further strengthened Acre's fortifications and armed every adult male in the city with a rifle, two pistols and a sabre. He mended ties with his sons, who held iltizam throughout the Galilee, and consolidated his relationship with the Shia clans of Jabal Amil, thereby cementing his local alliances.[88]
Alliance with Ali Bey and war with Damascus
Although Zahir was bereft of support in Constantinople and Damascus, he was forging a new alliance with the increasingly autonomous
Zahir was surprised and angered by Ismail's reticence to attack. In a unilateral move to impose his authority in Uthman Pasha's jurisdiction, Zahir had his son Ahmad and other subordinate commanders collect taxes from villages in Damascus Eyalet, including
Abu al-Dhahab's withdrawal frustrated Zahir who proceeded to make independent moves, first by capturing Jaffa in August 1771,[89] after driving out its governor Ahmad Bey Tuqan. Shortly thereafter, he captured the cotton-producing Bani Sa'b district (centered around Tulkarm), which was held by Mustafa Bey Tuqan.[95] Zahir had Jaffa fortified and garrisoned with 2,000 men.[89] By the end of August, Uthman Pasha restored his control over Ramla and Gaza, but Zahir retained Jaffa.[96]
In an attempt to expand his zone of influence to Nablus, the commercial center of Palestine and its agriculturally-rich hinterland, Zahir besieged Nablus in late 1771. By then, he had secured an alliance with the Jarrars,[97] who were incensed at Uthman Pasha's appointment of Mustafa Bey Tuqan as the collector of the miri (Hajj caravan tax).[98] Nablus was under the de facto control of the Tuqan and Nimr clans, local rivals of the Jarrars. The loss of Jaffa and Bani Sa'b stripped Nablus of its sea access. Nablus was defended by 12,000 mostly peasant riflemen under Nimr and Tuqan commanders. After nine days of clashes, Zahir withdrew to avoid a costly stalemate. As he departed Nablus, his forces raided many of the city's satellite villages, from which its peasant defenders originated.[97]
Uthman Pasha had resumed his governorship of Damascus at the end of June 1771 and was determined to eliminate Zahir. To that end, he assembled a coalition that included Darwish Pasha, Muhammad Pasha and Yusuf Shihab. In late August, Uthman Pasha reached Lake Hula at the head of 10,000 soldiers.[96] Before Uthman Pasha could be joined by his allies, Zahir and Nasif confronted the governor on 2 September. Zahir's son Ali raided Uthman Pasha's camp, while Zahir's other troops blocked them from the west. Uthman Pasha's troops hastily retreated towards the Jordan River, the only place where they were not surrounded. The overwhelming majority drowned in the river, with only 300–500 survivors, including Uthman Pasha, who almost drowned before being rescued by one of his men. The Battle of Lake Hula marked a decisive victory for Zahir, who entered Acre triumphantly with the spoils of Uthman Pasha's camp. He was celebrated by the city's residents and on the way there, had been given honorary gun salutes by the fortified villages between Tiberias and Acre. He also received congratulations from the French merchant ships at the port of Acre. Zahir's victory encouraged Ali Bey to relaunch his Syrian campaign.[99]
Following his victory, Zahir had Darwish Pasha vacate Sidon on 13 October. He returned two days later after receiving Yusuf Shihab's backing. Zahir decided to move against Yusuf Shihab and, together with Nasif, confronted him and his 37,000 men at the village of Nabatieh on 20 October. Zahir's Metawali cavalry feigned retreat, luring Yusuf Shihab's army into a place where they were surrounded by Zahir's men, who dealt them a decisive blow. Yusuf Shihab thereafter retreated to his mountain village of Deir al-Qamar, leaving Sidon under Sheikh Ali Jumblatt and 3,000 Druze defenders. When news of Zahir's victory reached them, Ali Jumblatt and Darwish Pasha withdrew from the city, which was subsequently occupied by Zahir and Nasif. Uthman Pasha and all of his sons were consequently dismissed from their posts by the Porte.[100] Although he could not capture Nablus and its hinterland, Zahir's domain by the end of 1771 extended from Sidon to Jaffa and included an influential presence in the Hauran plain.[101] In the same year, Lajjun was the site of a decisive battle in which Zahir defeated the alliance of the Jarrars, the Saqr and the Nabulsi sheikhs, preparing his political and military hegemony over Jabal Nablus.[27]
Muhammad Tuqan captured Jaffa from Zahir in May 1772, the same month that Ali Bey arrived in Acre to seek Zahir's protection after being forced out of Egypt by rival mamluks. In June, the Ottoman loyalist Jazzar Pasha took over Beirut from local Druze sheikhs. The Druze had previously been in conflict with Zahir, but due to Jazzar's offensive, the circumstances fostered an alliance between them, Zahir, and the Metawali clans. Zahir and Ali Bey captured Jaffa with help from the Russian Fleet after a nine-month siege, in which they exhausted many of their resources. Before that, in late October 1772, Zahir and his Druze and Metawali allies captured Beirut from Jazzar, also with Russian naval support.[101]
In March 1773, Ali Bey left Palestine to reestablish himself in Egypt, but Abu al-Dhahab had him killed when he arrived.[101] With this came an end to the alliance that politically and economically aligned Egypt and Palestine for the first time since the early 16th century.[102] While their attempts to unite their territories were unsuccessful, their rule posed the most serious domestic challenge to Ottoman rule in the 18th century.[103] As a consequence of Ali Bey's death, Zahir moved to strengthen his hold over Jaffa and capture Jerusalem, but he failed in the latter attempt. All of Syria came under the official command of Uthman Pasha al-Misri in 1774 in order to bring stability to its provinces. Misri avoided conflict with Zahir and sought to establish friendly terms with him. He convinced the Porte to appoint Zahir governor of Sidon as long as Zahir paid all of the taxes the province had owed the Porte. Misri further promoted Zahir in February by declaring him 'Governor of Sidon, Nablus, Gaza, Ramla, Jaffa and Jabal Ajlun', although this title was not imperially sanctioned.[101] In effect, Zahir was the de facto ruler over Palestine (with the exception of Nablus and Jerusalem), Jabal Amil, and the Syrian coast from Gaza to Beirut.[104]
Downfall and death
Misri was recalled to Constantinople in the summer of 1774 and Muhammad Pasha al-Azm was appointed governor of Damascus. Zahir's governorship of Sidon was thus left vulnerable because it had largely depended on guarantees from Misri. Azm sought peaceful relations with Zahir, but the Porte, having made
On 20 May 1775, Abu al-Dhahab, having been encouraged by the Porte to eradicate Zahir's influence, captured Jaffa and slaughtered its male inhabitants. News of the massacre spurred the people of Acre into a mass panic, with its residents fleeing and storing their goods in the city's Khan al-Ifranj caravanserai for safekeeping. On 24 May, Zahir also departed the city, leaving for Sidon.[107] Ali subsequently entered and declared himself governor. However, his Maghrebi troops abandoned him and looted the city as Abu al-Dhahab's troops approached it a few days later.[105] They proceeded to conquer Sidon by sea, prompting Zahir to seek shelter with Metawali allies in Jabal Amil.[107] Some of Zahir's sons attempted to secure their own peace with Abu al-Dhahab, but the latter became ill and died on 10 June, causing the collapse and chaotic withdrawal of his Egyptian troops from Acre. Zahir reentered the city two days later and reestablished order with the assistance of Dinkizli.[108] However, the setback of Abu al-Dhahab's death did not preclude the Porte from attempting to check Zahir's power and Sidon remained in direct government control.[109]
On 23 April, the Porte dispatched the Ottoman Navy admiral, Hasan Pasha al-Jazayiri, to blockade Acre. He reached Haifa on 7 August, taking Jaffa from Zahir's son-in-law, Karim al-Ayyubi.[109] Hasan Pasha ordered Zahir to pay arrears of the miri accruing from 1768. Zahir initially agreed to pay 500,000 piasters of the total amount upfront and a further 50,000 piasters to Hasan Pasha personally to "spare the blood of the people".[109] Hasan Pasha accepted Zahir's proposals, but the arrangements fell apart.[109]
The accounts differ as to why the negotiations collapsed, but agree that their failure was the result of disputes within Zahir's inner circle between Sabbagh and Dinkizli.[109] Most accounts claim that Sabbagh urged Zahir not to pay the requested sums and agitated for war. Sabbagh argued that Zahir's treasury lacked the funds and that Zahir's forces were capable of defeating Hasan Pasha. Dinkizli pressed Zahir to pay, arguing that mass bloodshed could be averted. He advised Zahir to force Sabbagh to pay the amount if Zahir could not afford it. When the negotiations dragged on, Hasan Pasha pressed for a full repayment of the miri arrears, warning Zahir that he would be executed if he failed to do so. Insulted by the threat, he threatened to destroy Hasan Pasha's fleet unless he withdrew.[110]
Hasan Pasha proceeded to bombard Acre, and Zahir's Maghrebi artillerymen responded with cannon fire, damaging two of imperial ships. The following day, Hasan Pasha's fleet fired roughly 7,000 shells against Acre without returning fire from the city's artillerymen;[110] Dinkizli ordered his Maghrebi forces to disengage because as Muslims they were prohibited from attacking the sultan's military. Realizing his long-time lieutenant's betrayal, Zahir attempted to flee Acre on 21 August or 22 August. As he departed its gates, he was fired on by Ottoman troops, with a bullet striking his neck and causing him to fall off his horse. A Maghrebi soldier then decapitated him. Zahir's severed head was subsequently delivered to Constantinople.[111]
Aftermath
Following his death, Sabbagh and Zahir's sons Abbas and Salih were arrested by Hasan Pasha's men.[112] Sabbagh was executed by Hasan Pasha. The sons were imprisoned in Constantinople. The Porte confiscated property belonging to Zahir, his sons and Sabbagh, valued at 41,500,000 piasters. Also arrested with Zahir's sons was their physician, who was known to be skilled. The physician was summoned by the sultan to treat his ailing wife, which he did successfully, earning him his release and a medal of honor from the sultan. The physician used his influence with the authorities to have Zahir's children and grandchildren released and returned to their hometowns.[113] Dinkizli was rewarded with the governorship of Gaza, but died en route to his new headquarters, likely having been poisoned by Hasan Pasha.[111]
Zahir's sons Uthman, Ahmad, Sa'id and Ali continued to resist government forces, with Ali putting up the longest fight from his fortress in Deir Hanna. On 22 July 1776, the fortress capitulated to the combined forces of Hasan Pasha and Jazzar Pasha. Ali fled, but was killed later that year in the area between Tiberias and Safed. By then, the rest of Zahir's sons had been arrested or killed. Abbas was later appointed by Sultan Selim III as the sheikh of Safed. In 1799, when Napoleon invaded Palestine and withdrew after being defeated by Jazzar in Acre, Abbas and Salih left Safed with the departing French forces. This marked the end of Zaydani influence in the Galilee.[112]
Politics
Administration
Zahir appointed many of his brothers and sons as local administrators, particularly after he consolidated his control over Acre,
Zahir had an aide who jointly served in the capacity of mudabbir (manager) and
There were other officials in Zahir's civil administration in Acre, including chief religious officials, namely the
Zahir's initial military forces consisted of his Zaydani kinsmen and the inhabitants of the areas he ruled. They numbered about 200 men in the early 1720s, but grew to about 1,500 in the early 1730s. During this early period of Zahir's career, he also had the key military backing of the Banu Saqr and other Bedouin tribes. As he consolidated his hold over Galilee, his army rose to over 4,000 men, many of the later recruits being peasants who supported Zahir for protecting them against Bedouin raids. This suppression of the Bedouin in turn caused the tribes to largely withdraw their military backing of Zahir. The core of his private army were the Maghrebi mercenaries. The Maghrebis' commander, Dinkizli, also served as Zahir's top military commander from 1735 until Dinkizli's defection during the Ottoman siege of Acre in 1775. From the time Zahir reconciled with Sheikh Nasif of Jabal Amil in 1768 until most of the remainder of his rule, Zahir also counted on the support of Nasif's roughly 10,000 Metawali cavalrymen. However, the Metawalis did not aid Zahir during the Ottoman offensive of 1775. Zahir's fortified villages and towns were equipped with artillery installments and his army's arsenal consisted of cannons, matchlock rifles, pistols and lances. Most of the firearms were imported from Venice or France, and by the early 1770s, the Russian imperial navy.[125]
General security
According to Joudah, the two principal conditions Zahir established to foster his sheikhdom's prosperity and its survival were "security and justice".[126] Before Zahir's consolidation of power, the villages of northern Palestine were prone to Bedouin raids and robberies and the roads were under constant threat from highway robbers and Bedouin attacks. Despite being left destitute following the looting raids, the inhabitants of these agrarian villages remained obligated to pay the Ottoman government the miri. To avoid punitive measures for not paying the miri, the inhabitants would abandon their villages for safety in the larger towns or the desert. This situation hurt the economy of the region as the raids sharply reduced the villages' agricultural output, tax collectors could not collect their impositions, and trade could not be safely conducted due to the insecurity of the roads.[126]
By 1746, Zahir had established order in the lands he controlled.[127] He coopted the dominant Bedouin tribe of the region, the Banu Saqr, which greatly contributed to the establishment of security in northern Palestine.[128] Moreover, Zahir charged the sheikhs of the towns and villages of northern Palestine with ensuring the safety of the roads in their respective vicinity and required them to compensate anyone who was robbed of their property. General security reached a level whereby "an old woman with gold in her hand could travel from one place to another without fear or danger", according to Zahir's biographer Sabbagh.[129]
The period of calm that persisted between 1744 and 1765 greatly boosted the security and economy of the Galilee. The security established in the region encouraged people from other parts of the empire to immigrate there.[130] Conflict between the local clans and between Zahir and his sons remained limited to periodic clashes, while there were no external attacks against Zahir's domains.[52] While Zahir used force to strengthen his position, the local inhabitants generally took comfort in his rule, which historian Thomas Philip described as "relatively just and reasonably fair".[21] According to the traveler Richard Pococke, who visited the area in 1737, the local people had great admiration for Zahir, especially for his war against bandits on the roads.[131]
Economic policies
In addition to providing security, Zahir and his local deputies adopted a policy of aiding peasants cultivate and harvest their farmlands as a means to ensure the steady supply of agricultural products for export. These benefits included loans to peasants and the distribution of free seeds.[129] Financial burdens on the peasants were also reduced as Zahir offered tax relief during dry seasons or when harvests were poor.[130][132] This same tax relief was extended to newcomers who sought to begin cultivating new farmlands.[130] Moreover, Zahir assumed responsibility for outstanding payments the peasants owed to merchants from credit-based transactions, if the merchants could provide proof of unsatisfactory payment.[129] According to Philipp, Zahir "had the good business sense not to exploit peasants to the point of destruction, but kept his financial demands to a more moderate level".[130] He regularly paid the Ottoman authorities their financial dues, ensuring a degree of stability in his relationship with the sultanate.[133]
After Zahir conquered Acre, he transformed it from a decaying village into a fortified market hub for Palestinian products, including silk, wheat, olive oil, tobacco and cotton, which he exported to Europe.[133][134] Zahir monopolized the cotton market, controlling its production and foreign export. He did business with European merchants based in northern Palestine's ports, who competed with one another for the cotton and grain cultivated in the rural villages under Zahir's control or influence in the Galilee's hinterland and Jabal Amil.[135] Before this, European merchants dealt directly with local cotton growers, but Zahir, with the help of Sabbagh, ended this system by assuming the role of middleman between the foreign merchants and the growers living under his rule. This allowed him to both monopolize cotton production and the merchants' price for the product.[136] Zahir's pricing for the local cash crops prevented "exploitation" of the peasants and local merchants by European merchants and their "manipulation of the prices", according to Joudah.[120] This caused financial losses to the Europeans, who lodged numerous complaints to the French and English ambassadors to the Ottoman government. A formal agreement to regulate commerce between Zahir and the European merchants was reached in 1753.[120] Zahir further encouraged trade by offering local merchants interest-free loans.[129]
The high European demand for cotton enabled Zahir to become wealthy and finance his autonomous sheikhdom. Control of the cotton market also allowed him to gain practical control of the Sidon Eyalet, except for the city of Sidon.[137] With mixed success, Zahir attempted to have French merchant ships redirected from the ports of Tyre and Sidon to Haifa, in order to benefit from the customs fees he could exact.[138] Acre underwent an economic boom as a result of its position in the cotton trade with France.[2]
Relationship with religious minorities
Zahir governed with religious tolerance and encouraged the involvement of religious minorities in the local economy. As part of his wider efforts to increase the Galilee's population,
Zahir encouraged the settlement of Christians in Acre,[144] in order to contribute to the city's commercial dynamism in trade and manufacturing.[145] Christians grew to become the largest religious group in the city by the late 18th century.[144] Zahir's territory became a haven for Melkites and Greek Orthodox from other parts of Ottoman Syria, who migrated there for better trade and employment opportunities. In Nazareth, the Christian community prospered and grew, receiving an influx of Maronites and Greek Orthodox from Mount Lebanon and Transjordan, respectively.[146] The Melkite patriarch was based in Acre between 1765 and 1768.[147] Along with Jews, Christians contributed to the economy of Zahir's sheikhdom through their relative ease in dealing with Christian European merchants, the financial support networks many of them maintained in Damascus or Constantinople, and their role in service industries.[148]
Zahir allowed the
A strong relationship was maintained between Zahir and the Shia Muslim peasants of Jabal Amil and their sheikhs and merchant class. Zahir maintained law and order in Jabal Amil, while leaving its mostly Shia inhabitants to their own devices. The Shia also benefited economically from Zahir's monopoly of the cotton industry and their sheikhs provided him men of great military skills.[137] Zahir was a key backer of the Shia in their successful conflict with the Druze Jumblatt clan and the Shihabs under Mulhim.[149][137]
The relationship between Zahir and the rural sheikhs of the Druze of Mount Lebanon under the
Family
Zahir had five wives during his lifetime.[152] His marriages were politically advantageous, helping to seal his rule over areas he captured and consolidate relationships with Bedouin tribes, local clans, or urban notables.[129] His first wife was the daughter of the Damascene religious notable, Sayyid Muhammad al-Husayni.[153] Among his other wives was a woman from the Sardiyya tribe,[154] and the daughters of the mukhtars of Bi'ina and Deir al-Qassi.[22][24]
Zahir had eight sons from his wives,[155] and according to Tobias Smollett, a daughter as well.[152] His sons, from eldest to youngest, were Salibi, Ali, Uthman, Sa'id, Ahmad, Salih, Sa'd al-Din and Abbas.[155] His daughter Nijma was married to Karim al-Ayyubi,[152] who was a cousin of Zahir.[117] By 1773, Zahir had a total of 272 children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren.[152]
As Zahir consolidated his power and reduced external threats to his rule in the 1760s, his sons aspired for more influence and ultimately fought against their father and each other in order to secure their place as Zahir's successor. Besides support from elements of the Zaydani clan, Zahir's sons maintained their own power bases, largely derived from their mothers' clans, and also made their own alliances with other powerful actors in the region. Zahir was victorious in the many conflicts he had with his sons, but their frequent dissent weakened his rule and contributed to his downfall. Before his sons' rebellions, Zahir had eliminated other relatives who challenged his power.[156]
Legacy
Zahir's rule radically changed the urban landscape of the Galilee. With the restoration and refortification of Acre and the establishment of the secondary port city of Haifa, the Galilee's ties with the
In the late 19th century, the Palestine Exploration Fund's Claude Reignier Conder wrote that the Ottomans had successfully destroyed the power of Palestine's indigenous ruling families who "had practically been their own masters" but had been "ruined so that there is no longer any spirit left in them".[159] Among these families were the "proud race" of Zahir, which was still held in high esteem, but was powerless and poor.[159] Zahir's modern-day descendants in the Galilee use the surname 'Dhawahri' or 'al-Zawahirah' in Zahir's honor. The Dhawahri constitute one of the traditional elite Muslim clans of Nazareth, alongside the Fahum, Zu'bi and Onallas families.[160] Other places in the Galilee where descendants of Zahir's clan live are Bi'ina and Kafr Manda and, before its 1948 destruction, Damun. Many of the inhabitants of modern-day northern Israel, particularly the towns and villages where Zahir or his family left an architectural legacy, hold Zahir in high regard.[161]
Although he was mostly overlooked by historians of the Middle East, some scholars view Zahir's rule as a forerunner to
Palestinian academic Nur Masalha described Zahir as "the founding father of early Palestinian modernities and social renewal".[165] Masalha further argued that Palestine under the rule of Zahir was "the closest Palestine got to a modern independent state".[166]
Building works
Zahir and his family built fortresses, watchtowers, warehouses, and khans (caravanserais). These buildings improved the domestic administration and general security of the Galilee. Today, many are in a state of disrepair and remain outside the scope of Israel's cultural preservation laws.[157]
Acre
Zahir rebuilt the Crusader walls around Acre.[167] Although considerable in their extent, Zahir's walls were designed to ward off pirates and Bedouin raiders, and could not defend well against the Ottoman military. Under Jazzar Pasha, major reconstruction of the walls was undertaken and the new walls largely remain in place in the present day. Part of Zahir's contributions are extant, mainly a section of the northeastern wall, and are characterized by small stone blocks.[168] An inscription dated to 1750 on a marble slab that was removed from this part of the wall credits Zahir as the builder:
By the order of Allah this wall was erected in Akka [Acre] by a nobleman who generously acted.
The father of the heroes he is, the beloved Zahir.
May Allah reinforce his government forever.[169]
He also built on top of a number of Crusader and Mamluk structures in the city. Among these were the caravanserais of Khan al-Shawarda and its Burj al-Sultan tower and Khan al-Shunah.[167] The Crusader plan and main structure of Khan al-Shunah was preserved by Zahir in his restoration of the building in 1764, and it remained in use as an inn and market for traders until Haifa overtook Acre as the commercial center of the region in the late 19th century. It thereafter became housing for the poor.[170] The original structure of the Suq al-Abyad (the White Bazaar), located in the northeastern corner of the walled city, was built by Zahir, though most of the present structure dates to an 1815 reconstruction by Acre's governor, Sulayman Pasha.[171]
In 1748, Zahir commissioned the construction of the Muallaq Mosque. The building had been used as a synagogue; after Zahir converted it for Muslim use, he compensated the Jewish worshippers with property elsewhere in the city.[172] The Zaytuna Mosque was built in Acre during his rule at the initiative of Hajj Muhammad al-Sadiq, or the local scholar Muhammad Shadi al-Farid, who financed its construction.[173][174]
Nazareth
Zahir built the Seraya government house in Nazareth,[160] which served as the city's municipal headquarters until 1991.[175]
Haifa
Between 1765 and 1769, Zahir had Haifa demolished and rebuilt and fortified at a site 3 kilometers (1.9 mi) to the southeast. While the old village was situated on a plain, the new town, which remained a port along the
Tiberias
Zahir built fortifications around Tiberias in 1739–1740. Part of the walls originally ran along the shore of the Sea of Galilee and had eighteen towers. The fortifications were severely damaged in the 1837 earthquake. Most of the walls have been destroyed or form part of modern structures, while eight of the towers are extant.[180]
The two-story square
In the present center of Tiberias, Zahir built a mosque, known after him as the Omari Mosque or the Zahiri Mosque.[184][185] It consists of a prayer hall, a portico and a minaret.[185] It was built with alternating white and black stone, typical of the architectural style of Zahir's building works.[184] While there have been restorations since it was first constructed in the 1740s, the mosque retains its original plan.[185]
Villages
Fortifications and other structures were built in the rural villages under Zahir's control.[162] The Zaydans built a double wall around Deir Hanna, making it "the best example of a fortified village in the Galilee", according to Andrew Petersen.[186] Zahir's brother Sa'd built the inner walls and the twelve towers which hovered over them, while Zahir built the outer walls. His son Ali added towers, detached from the walls, in front of the eastern and western sides.[186] They also built a palace complex, including a mosque.[187] The Zaydans' building works in Deir Hanna were severely damaged during Jazzar Pasha's siege.[188] Nonetheless, considerable parts of the structures remain intact and as late as 1960, the town retained the same form of the fortress, with no structures built outside of the lines of the original fortifications.[186]
North of
In
See also
- Fakhr al-Din II, tax farmer and local strongman of Mount Lebanon, the Galilee, and the adjacent coasts in the late 16th–early 17th centuries.
- District of Acre
- Gigi and Bella Hadid: American models, claims descent from Zahir al-Umar through their father, Mohamed Hadid
References
Notes
- ^ The proper transliteration of his given name is Ẓāhir, but in the colloquial Arabic of the Galilee, his name is pronounced Ḍāhir.[1]
- ^ Zahir's date of birth is not definitively known, with the years 1686, 1689/1690 and 1694 cited by Zahir's contemporary biographers Volney, Mikha'il Sabbagh and Khalil al-Muradi, respectively. A modern biographer of Zahir, Ahmad Hasan Joudah, considers Sabbagh to be the most reliable source for Zahir's personal life and thus deems 1689/1690 to be the most likely year of Zahir's birth.[1]
- Damun dated to 1722 or 1723, which credited Zahir's uncle, 'Ali ibn Salih', as its builder.[5]
- Arrabat al-Battuf specifically. According to oral histories of the Muslims and Druze of the Galilee, the Zaydans swiftly overtook the Druze chief of Sallama, who dominated the Shaghur, thereby gaining control of the area. The modern historian Kais Firro tentatively dates the incident, which resulted in the destruction of Sallama and nine other Druze villages in the Shaghur, to between 1688 and 1692. Zahir's 18th-century biographers, Mikha'il Sabbagh and Abbud Sabbagh, do not mention the incident.[7]
- ^ By the early 18th century, Sidon Eyalet was divided into several muqata'as (fiscal districts), unlike the sanjak divisions of most eyalets, including Sidon in the 17th century. Tax collection in the muqata'as was farmed out by the governor to multazims (holders of iltizam), who were also responsible for protecting their territory from Bedouin depredations, building and maintaining fortifications and other public works, and overseeing commercial and agricultural affairs.[10]
- ^ Muhammad's father Ali, based in Damun, had held the iltizam of nearby Shefa-Amr, I'billin and Tamra and engaged in trade with European cotton merchants in Acre as early as 1704. Muhammad eventually succeeded his father.[26]
- ^ The Nablus-based chronicler, Ihsan al-Nimr, in his detailed account of Nablus during the 18th century, does not mention the battle.[33] The Nazarene historian Hanna Samarah claims Zahir's 2,000 men killed 8,000 on the opposing side.[34] The head of the Jarrars, Sheikh Ibrahim al-Jarrar, was slain.[35]
- ^ Previous imperial orders to Damascus had only called for "punishing" Zahir.[45]
- defterdar (treasurer) of Damascus under As'ad Pasha al-Azm, formally made peace with Zahir in the governor's name in 1743. Zahir then sent As'ad Pasha and Ibn al-Falaqinsi expensive gifts.[49]
- ^ While Zahir and the Zaydans were not involved in the Hajj caravan raid, he had friendly ties with the Sardiyya, the tribe of his mother and one of his wives, and he allowed the Bedouins to sell goods looted from the caravan in his domains following the attack.[8]
- nahiya (subdistrict) of Haifa and Yajur, which spanned the coastland between Tantura and Haifa and the adjacent Mount Carmel, became part of the tax base of Acre, and by extension, the Sidon Eyalet in early 1723, after having been administratively part of the Lajjun Sanjak of the Damascus Eyalet since the advent of Ottoman rule in 1517.[64] An imperial order giving legal cover to Uthman Pasha's temporary capture of Tantura, restored the Haifa and Yajur nahiya to Damascene jurisdiction from 1760 until the order was revoked in 1762, following Zahir's recapture of Tantura.[65]
Citations
- ^ a b Joudah 2013, p. 27, note 1.
- ^ a b c Philipp 2002, p. 393.
- ^ a b Joudah 2015, pp. 84–85.
- ^ Philipp 2001, p. 30.
- ^ Sharon 2004, pp. 9–10.
- ^ Cohen 1973, pp. 8, 90 note 39.
- ^ Firro 1992, pp. 45–46.
- ^ a b Joudah 2013, p. 43.
- ^ a b Cohen 1973.
- ^ Cohen 1973, pp. 120–122.
- ^ Cohen 1973, pp. 8–9.
- ^ a b c Philipp 2001, p. 31.
- ^ Cohen 1973, p. 9.
- ^ a b c Philipp 2001, p. 31.
- ^ Joudah 2013, pp. 15–16.
- ^ Philipp 2001, pp. 31–32.
- ^ a b c d e Philipp 2001, p. 32.
- ^ Joudah 2013, pp. 18–19.
- ^ a b Joudah 2013, p. 19.
- ^ Joudah 1987, pp. 22–23.
- ^ a b c d Philipp 2001, p. 32.
- ^ a b c d e f Philipp 2001, p. 33.
- ^ a b c d e Joudah 2013, p. 20.
- ^ a b Joudah 1987, p. 24.
- ^ Joudah 1987, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Cohen 1973, pp. 9–10.
- ^ S2CID 258602184.
- ^ a b c d e Joudah 2013, p. 21.
- ^ a b Philipp 2001, p. 33.
- ^ a b Joudah 2013, p. 36.
- ^ Rafeq 1966, p. 130.
- ^ Philipp 2001, pp. 33, 208, notes 14 and 15.
- ^ Philipp 2001, p. 208, note 16.
- ^ Joudah 2013, p. 30, note 26.
- ^ Doumani 1995, pp. 41–42.
- ^ Joudah 2013, pp. 25, 30, note 27.
- ^ Philipp 2001, p. 34.
- ^ a b c d e Philipp 2001, p. 35.
- ^ Joudah 2013, p. 35.
- ^ Rafeq 1966, pp. 155–156.
- ^ Cohen 1973, p. 32.
- ^ Shamir 1963, p. 2.
- ^ Cohen 1973, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Joudah 2013, p. 37.
- ^ a b Cohen 1973, p. 33, note 15.
- ^ Joudah 2013, pp. 37–38.
- ^ Joudah 2013, p. 38.
- ^ a b Philipp 2001, p. 36.
- ^ Shamir 1963, pp. 8–9.
- ^ Philipp 2001, pp. 35–36, 39.
- ^ Joudah 1987, pp. 41–42.
- ^ a b c d e Philipp 2001, p. 39.
- ^ Joudah 1987, p. 143.
- ^ a b c Philipp 2001, p. 35.
- ^ Philipp 1990, p. 135.
- ^ Philipp 2001, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Joudah 2013, pp. 38–39.
- ^ Joudah 2013, p. 54.
- ^ a b c Philipp 2001, p. 36.
- ^ a b Joudah 2013, p. 22.
- ^ Cohen 1973, p. 133.
- ^ Philipp 2001, pp. 36, 38.
- ^ a b Joudah 2013, pp. 24–25.
- ^ Cohen 1973, pp. 122, 139–140.
- ^ Cohen 1973, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Joudah 2013, p. 52.
- ^ Cohen 1973, pp. 84–85.
- ^ Joudah 2013, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Joudah 2013, p. 55.
- ^ Joudah 2013, p. 56.
- ^ Joudah 2013, pp. 56–57.
- ^ Joudah 2013, p. 57.
- ^ Joudah 2013, pp. 57–58.
- ^ Joudah 2013, pp. 58–59.
- ^ a b Joudah 2013, p. 60.
- ^ Cohen 1973, p. 86.
- ^ Cohen 1973, p. 44.
- ^ Joudah 2013, p. 58.
- ^ a b Joudah 2013, p. 23.
- ^ a b Winter 2010, pp. 133–134.
- ^ Winter 2010, p. 132.
- ^ a b c Winter 2010, p. 135.
- ^ a b c d e Philipp 2001, p. 37.
- ^ Philipp 2001, p. 239, note 37.
- ^ a b c Philipp 2001, p. 38.
- ^ a b Joudah 2013, p. 24.
- ^ Philipp 2001, pp. 39–40.
- ^ Philipp 2001, p. 40.
- ^ a b c d Philipp 2001, p. 41.
- ^ Rogan 2009, p. 50.
- ^ Joudah 1987, p. 70.
- ^ Rogan 2009, p. 50.
- ^ a b Rogan 2009, p. 51.
- ^ Joudah 1987, p. 81.
- ^ Doumani 1995, p. 95.
- ^ a b Joudah 1987, p. 84.
- ^ a b Doumani 1995, p. 96.
- ^ Joudah 1987, p. 88.
- ^ Joudah 1987, p. 85.
- ^ Joudah 1987, p. 86.
- ^ a b c d Philipp 2001, p. 42.
- ^ Crecelius 1986, p. 247.
- ^ Crecelius 1986, p. 248.
- ^ Philipp 2001, pp. 42–43.
- ^ a b c Philipp 2001, p. 43.
- ^ Philipp 2001, p. 137.
- ^ a b Joudah 1987, p. 112.
- ^ Philipp 2001, p. 44.
- ^ a b c d e Joudah 1987, p. 114.
- ^ a b Joudah 1987, p. 115.
- ^ a b Joudah 1987, p. 116.
- ^ a b Joudah 1987, p. 117.
- ^ Thackston 1988, pp. 17–18.
- ^ Volney 1788, p. 91.
- ^ Volney 1788, p. 133.
- ^ a b c Philipp 2001, p. 153.
- ^ a b c d e f Joudah 1987, p. 127.
- ^ Joudah 1987, p. 110.
- ^ Sabbagh 2006, p. 41.
- ^ a b c d e Joudah 1987, p. 39.
- ^ Joudah 1987, p. 126.
- ^ a b c d Joudah 1987, p. 128.
- ^ Philipp 2001, p. 178.
- ^ Reichmuth 2009, pp. 45–46 (note 242).
- ^ Joudah 1987, p. 129.
- ^ a b Joudah 1987, p. 37.
- ^ Joudah 1987, pp. 37–38.
- ^ Philipp 2001, p. 94.
- ^ a b c d e Joudah 1987, p. 38.
- ^ a b c d Philipp 2001, p. 38.
- ^ Pococke 1745, p. 69.
- ^ Joudah 1987, p. 123.
- ^ a b Hitti 1951, p. 688.
- ^ Lehmann 2014, p. 31.
- ^ Crecelius 1986, p. 249.
- ^ Doumani 1995, p. 98.
- ^ a b c Shanahan 2005, p. 23.
- ^ Yazbak 1998, p. 13.
- ^ a b c Barnai 1992, p. 15.
- ^ Moammar 1990, p. 70.
- ^ Barnai 1992, p. 148.
- ^ Sabbagh 2006, p. 38.
- ^ Barnai 1992, p. 156.
- ^ a b Pringle 2009, p. 30.
- ^ Dumper 2007, p. 6.
- ^ a b Emmett 1995, p. 22.
- ^ a b Philipp 2001, p. 177.
- ^ Khoury 2008, p. 94.
- ^ Winter 2010, p. 132.
- ^ Harris 2012, p. 120.
- ^ Firro 1992, p. 46.
- ^ a b c d Smollet 1783, p. 282.
- ^ Philipp 2001, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Joudah 1987, p. 41.
- ^ a b Joudah 1987, p. 139.
- ^ Joudah 1987, p. 55.
- ^ a b Orser 1996, p. 473.
- ^ Orser 1996, p. 474.
- ^ a b Schölch 1984, p. 474.
- ^ a b Srouji 2003, p. 187.
- ^ a b c Joudah 1987, p. 118.
- ^ a b Baram 2007, p. 28.
- ^ LeBor, Adam (2006-06-02). "Land of My Father". The Guardian.
- ^ Moammar 1990, p. preface.
- ISBN 978-1-78699-869-9.
- ISBN 978-1-78699-869-9.
- ^ a b Sharon 1997, p. 28.
- ^ Petersen 2001, p. 73.
- ^ Sharon 1997, p. 41.
- ^ Sharon 1997, pp. 45–47.
- ^ Petersen 2001, p. 88.
- ^ Sharon 1997, p. 38.
- ^ Philipp 2001, p. 25.
- ^ Sharon 1997, p. 43.
- ^ Seraya, Nazareth Cultural and Tourism Association, 2008, archived from the original on 2011-07-27
- ^ Yazbak 1998, p. 14.
- ^ a b Yazbak 1998, p. 15.
- ^ a b c Petersen 2001, p. 145.
- ^ Petersen 2001, pp. 144–145.
- ^ Petersen 2001, p. 303.
- ^ Petersen 2001, p. 304.
- ^ Pringle 1998, p. 353.
- ^ Petersen 2001, p. 305.
- ^ a b Sabbagh 2006, p. 38.
- ^ a b c Petersen 2001, p. 301.
- ^ a b c Petersen 2001, p. 135.
- ^ Petersen 2001, pp. 132–134.
- ^ Sharon 2004, pp. 57–58.
- ^ Conder & Kitchener 1881, p. 125.
- ^ Masalha 2013, p. 178.
- ^ Conder & Kitchener 1881, p. 272.
- ^ Conder & Kitchener 1881, p. 338.
- ^ Conder & Kitchener 1881, p. 269.
- ^ Schölch 1984, p. 463.
- ^ Conder & Kitchener 1881, pp. 207–208.
- ^ Conder & Kitchener 1881, p. 248.
- ^ Conder & Kitchener 1881, p. 285.
- ^ Conder & Kitchener 1881, pp. 376–377.
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