Samaria
Samaria | |
---|---|
Coordinates: 32°16′N 35°11′E / 32.267°N 35.183°E | |
Part of | West Bank, Palestine |
Highest elevation | 1,016 m (3,333 ft) (Tall Asur (Ba'al Hazor)) |
Designation | السامرة, שֹׁומְרוֹן |
Samaria (
The first-century historian Josephus set the Mediterranean Sea as its limit to the west, and the Jordan River as its limit to the east.[3] Its territory largely corresponds to the biblical allotments of the tribe of Ephraim and the western half of Manasseh. It includes most of the region of the ancient Kingdom of Israel, which was north of the Kingdom of Judah. The border between Samaria and Judea is set at the latitude of Ramallah.[4]
The name "Samaria" is derived from the ancient city of Samaria, capital of the northern Kingdom of Israel.[5][6][7] The name Samaria likely began being used for the entire kingdom not long after the town of Samaria had become Israel's capital, but it is first documented after its conquest by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, which incorporated the land into the province of Samerina.[5]
Samaria was used to describe the northern midsection of the land in the
Etymology
According to the Hebrew Bible, the Hebrew name "Shomron" (Hebrew: שֹׁומְרוֹן) is derived from the individual (or clan) Shemer (Hebrew: שֶׁמֶר), from whom King Omri (ruled 880s–870s BCE) purchased the hill on which he built his new capital city of Shomron.[11][12]
The fact that the mountain was called Shomeron when Omri bought it may indicate that the correct etymology of the name is to be found more directly in the Semitic root for "guard", hence its initial meaning would have been "watch mountain". In the earlier cuneiform inscriptions, Samaria is designated under the name of "Bet Ḥumri" ("the house of Omri"); but in those of Tiglath-Pileser III (ruled 745–727 BCE) and later it is called Samirin, after its Aramaic name,[13] Shamerayin.[6]
Historical boundaries
Northern kingdom to Hellenistic period
In Nelson's Encyclopaedia (1906–1934), the Samaria region in the three centuries following the fall of the northern kingdom of Israel, i.e. during the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian periods, is described as a "province" that "reached from the [Mediterranean] sea to the Jordan Valley".[14]
Roman-period definition
The classical Roman-Jewish historian Josephus wrote:
(4) Now as to the country of Samaria, it lies between Judea and Galilee; it begins at a village that is in the great plain called Ginea, and ends at the Acrabbene toparchy, and is entirely of the same nature with Judea; for both countries are made up of hills and valleys, and are moist enough for agriculture, and are very fruitful. They have abundance of trees, and are full of autumnal fruit, both that which grows wild, and that which is the effect of cultivation. They are not naturally watered by many rivers, but derive their chief moisture from rain-water, of which they have no want; and for those rivers which they have, all their waters are exceeding sweet: by reason also of the excellent grass they have, their cattle yield more milk than do those in other places; and, what is the greatest sign of excellency and of abundance, they each of them are very full of people. (5) In the limits of Samaria and Judea lies the village Anuath, which is also named Borceos. This is the northern boundary of Judea.[3]
During the first century, the boundary between Samaria and Judea passed eastward of
Geography
The area known as the hills of Samaria is bounded by the
The Samarian hills are not very high, seldom reaching the height of over 800 meters. Samaria's climate is more hospitable than the climate further south.
There is no clear division between the mountains of southern Samaria and northern Judea.[2]
History
Israelite tribes and kingdoms
According to the Hebrew Bible, the Israelites captured the region known as Samaria from the Canaanites and assigned it to the Tribe of Joseph. The southern part of Samaria was then known as Mount Ephraim. After the death of King Solomon (c. 931 BC), the northern tribes, including Ephraim and Menashe, separated themselves politically from the southern tribes and established the separate Kingdom of Israel. Initially its capital was Tirzah until the time of King Omri (c. 884 BC), who built the city of Samaria and made it his capital. Samaria functioned as the capital of the Kingdom of Israel (the "Northern Kingdom") until its fall to the Assyrians in the 720s. Hebrew prophets condemned Samaria for its "ivory houses" and luxury palaces displaying pagan riches.[18]
The archaeological record suggests that Samaria experienced significant settlement growth in Iron Age II (from c. 950 BC). Archaeologists estimate that there were 400 sites, up from 300 during the previous Iron Age I (c. 1200 BC onwards). The people dwelt on tells, in small villages, farms, and forts, and in the cities of Shechem, Samaria and Tirzah in northern Samaria. Zertal estimated that about 52,000 people inhabited the Manasseh Hill in northern Samaria prior to the Assyrian deportations. According to botanists, the majority of Samaria's forests were torn down during the Iron Age II, and were replaced by plantations and agricultural fields. Since then, few oak forests have grown in the region.[19]
Assyrian period
In the 720s, the
Following the Assyrian conquest,
Babylonian and Persian periods
According to many scholars, archaeological excavations at Mount Gerizim indicate that a Samaritan temple was built there in the first half of the 5th century BCE.[29] The date of the schism between Samaritans and Jews is unknown, but by the early 4th century BCE the communities seem to have had distinctive practices and communal separation.[citation needed] Much of the anti-Samaritan polemic in the Hebrew Bible and extra-biblical texts (such as Josephus) originate from this point and on.[30]
Hellenistic period
During the Hellenistic period, Samaria was largely divided between a Hellenizing faction based around the town of Samaria and a pious faction in Shechem and surrounding rural areas, led by the High Priest.
Samaria was a largely autonomous province nominally dependent on the Seleucid Empire. However, the province gradually declined as the Maccabean movement and Hasmonean Judea grew stronger.[31] The transfer of three districts of Samaria— Ephraim, Lod and Ramathaim—under the control of Judea in 145 BCE as part of an agreement between Jonathan Apphus and Demetrius II is one indication of this decline.[31][32] Around 110 BCE, the decline of Hellenistic Samaria was complete, when the Jewish Hasmonean ruler John Hyrcanus destroyed the cities of Samaria and Shechem, as well as the city and temple on Mount Gerizim.[31][33] Only a few stone remnants of the Samaritan temple exist today.
Roman period
In 6 CE, Samaria became part of the Roman province of
Southern Samaria reached a peak in settlement during the early Roman period (63 BCE–70 CE), partly as a result of the Hasmonean dynasty's settlement efforts. The impact of the Jewish–Roman wars is archaeologically evident in Jewish-inhabited areas of southern Samaria, as many sites were destroyed and left abandoned for extended periods of time. After the First Jewish-Roman War, the Jewish population of the area decreased by around 50%, whereas after the Bar Kokhba revolt, it was completely wiped in many areas. According to Klein, the Roman authorities replaced the Jews with a population from the nearby provinces of Syria, Phoenicia, and Arabia.[34][35] An apparent new wave of settlement growth in southern Samaria, most likely by non-Jews, can be traced back to the late Roman and Byzantine eras.[36][19]
New Testament references
This section uses secondary sources that critically analyze them.(April 2023) ) |
The
Byzantine period
Following the bloody suppression of the Samaritan Revolts (mostly in 525 CE and 555 CE) against the Byzantine Empire, which resulted in death, displacement, and conversion to Christianity, the Samaritan population dramatically decreased. In the central parts of Samaria, the vacuum left by departing Samaritans was filled by nomads who gradually became sedentarized.[42]
The Byzantine period is considered the peak of settlement in Samaria, as in other regions of the country.[43] Based on historical sources and archeological data, the Manasseh Hill surveyors concluded that Samaria's population during the Byzantine period was composed of Samaritans, Christians, and a minority of Jews.[44] The Samaritan population was mainly concentrated in the valleys of Nablus and to the north as far as Jenin and Kfar Othenai; they did not settle south of the Nablus-Qalqiliya line. Christianity slowly made its way into Samaria, even after the Samaritan revolts. With the exception of Neapolis, Sebastia, and a small cluster of monasteries in central and northern Samaria, most of the population of the rural areas remained non-Christian.[45] In southwestern Samaria, a significant concentration of churches and monasteries was discovered, with some of them built on top of citadels from the late Roman period. Magen raised the hypothesis that many of these were used by Christian pilgrims, and filled an empty space in the region whose Jewish population was wiped out in the Jewish–Roman wars.[46][19]
Early Muslim, Crusader, Mamluk and Ottoman periods
Following the
Ottoman Period
During the
British Mandate
During the
Jordanian period
As a result of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, most of the territory was unilaterally incorporated as Jordanian-controlled territory, and was administered as part of the West Bank (west of the Jordan river).
Israeli administration
The Jordanian-held West Bank was captured and
Samaria is one of several standard statistical districts utilized by the
The Shomron Regional Council is the local municipal government that administers the smaller Israeli towns (settlements) throughout the area. The council is a member of the network of regional municipalities spread throughout Israel.[59] Elections for the head of the council are held every five years by Israel's ministry of interior, all residents over age 17 are eligible to vote. In special elections held in August 2015 Yossi Dagan was elected as head of the Shomron Regional Council.[60]
Israeli settlements in the West Bank are considered by most in the international community to be illegal under international law, but others including the United States and Israeli governments dispute this.[61] In September 2016, the Town Board of the American Town of Hempstead in the State of New York, led by Councilman Bruce Blakeman entered into a partnership agreement with the Shomron Regional Council, led by Yossi Dagan, as part of an anti-Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions campaign.[62]
Archaeological sites
Ancient city of Samaria/Sebaste
The ancient site of
Archaeological finds from Roman-era Sebaste, a site that was rebuilt and renamed by Herod the Great in 30 BC, include a colonnaded street, a temple-lined acropolis, and a lower city, where John the Baptist is believed to have been buried.[65]
The Harvard excavation of Samaria, which began in 1908, was headed by Egyptologist George Andrew Reisner.[66] The findings included Hebrew, Aramaic, cuneiform and Greek inscriptions, as well as pottery remains, coins, sculpture, figurines, scarabs and seals, faience, amulets, beads and glass.[67] The joint British-American-Hebrew University excavation continued under John Winter Crowfoot in 1931–35, during which time some of the chronology issues were resolved. The round towers lining the acropolis were found to be Hellenistic, the street of columns was dated to the 3–4th century, and 70 inscribed potsherds were dated to the early 8th century.[68]
In 1908–1935, remains of luxury furniture made of wood and ivory were discovered in Samaria, representing the Levant's most important collection of ivory carvings from the early first millennium BC. Despite theories of their Phoenician origin, some of the letters serving as fitter's marks are in Hebrew.[18]
As of 1999 three series of coins have been found that confirm
Other ancient sites
- The Bull Site, an Iron I cult site
- Tel Dothan near Jenin, identified with biblical Dothan
- Khirbet Kheibar, in Meithalun, ancient tell which was inhabited from the Middle Bronze Age to Medieval times
- Khirbet Kurkush, site of an ancient Samaritan or Jewish settlement with a notable necropolis
- Khirbet Samara, site of a notable ancient Samaritan synagogue
- Nablus area:
- Mount Gerizim, the religious epicenter of Samaritanism, site of an ancient Samaritan temple, and Samaritan and Byzantine ruins
- Mount Ebal site, Iron Age remains on Mount Ebal, seen by many scholars as an early Israelite cultic site
- Tell Balata, identified as biblical Shechem
- Khirbet Seilun/Tel Shiloh, identified with Shiloh (biblical city)
- Tell el-Far'ah (North), identified with biblical Tirzah, the third capital of the northern Kingdom of Israel.
Samaritans
The
See also
- Archevites
- Samaritan Revolts
- List of burial places of biblical figures
- Ahwat
- Judea and Samaria Area
References
Citations
- ^ "Samaria". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. HarperCollins Publishers. 2022. Retrieved November 23, 2022.
- ^ a b "Samaria - historical region, Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
- ^ a b c Josephus Flavius. "Jewish War, book 3, chapter 3:4-5". Fordham.edu. Retrieved 2012-12-31 – via Ancient History Sourcebook: Josephus (37 – after 93 CE): Galilee, Samaria, and Judea in the First Century CE.
- ^ The New Encyclopaedia Britannica: Macropaedia, 15th edition, 1987, volume 25, "Palestine", p. 403
- ^ a b c Mills & Bullard 1990.
- ^ a b "Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com.
- ^ "Open Collections Program: Expeditions and Discoveries, Harvard Expedition to Samaria, 1908–1910". ocp.hul.harvard.edu.
- ^ Emma Playfair (1992). International Law and the Administration of Occupied Territories: Two Decades of Israeli Occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Oxford University Press. p. 41.
On 17 December 1967, the Israeli military government issued an order stating that "the term 'Judea and Samaria region' shall be identical in meaning for all purposes ... to the term 'the West Bank Region'". This change in terminology, which has been followed in Israeli official statements since that time, reflected a historic attachment to these areas and rejection of a name that implied Jordanian sovereignty over them.
- ^ Kifner, John (1 August 1988). "Hussein surrenders claims on West Bank to the P.L.O.; U.S. peace plan in jeopardy; Internal Tensions". The New York Times.
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- ^ 1 Kings 16:24
- ^ "This Side of the River Jordan; On Language". Philologos. Forward. 22 September 2010.
- ^ Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). . The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
- ^ Finley, John H., ed. (October 1926). "Samaria". Nelson's perpetual loose-leaf encyclopaedia: an international work of reference. Vol. X. New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons. p. 550. Retrieved 13 December 2020 – via HathiTrust Digital Library.
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- ^ "Samaria | historical region, Palestine | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-03-23.
- ^ "Open Collections Program: Expeditions and Discoveries, Harvard Expedition to Samaria, 1908–1910". ocp.hul.harvard.edu.
- ^ a b "The Ivories from Samaria: Complete Catalogue, Stylistic Classification, Iconographical Analysis, Cultural-Historical Evaluation". www.research-projects.uzh.ch. Archived from the original on 2018-03-21.
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- ^ a b Yamada & Yamada 2017, pp. 408–409.
- ^ Reid 1908.
- ^ Elayi 2017, p. 50.
- ^ Radner 2018, 0:51.
- ^ a b Mark 2014.
- ^ Radner 2017, p. 210.
- ^ Dalley 2017, p. 528.
- ^ Frahm 2017, pp. 177–178.
- ^ Gottheil et al. 1906.
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- ISBN 978-0-02-866097-4. As quoted by Department of Near Eastern Studies, University of Michigan and Encyclopedia.com
- ^ ISBN 978-3-11-026820-1, retrieved 2023-04-11
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- ^ See: Jonathan Bourgel, "The Destruction of the Samaritan Temple by John Hyrcanus: A Reconsideration", JBL 135/3 (2016), pp. 505-523; [1]. See also idem, "The Samaritans during the Hasmonean Period: The Affirmation of a Discrete Identity?" Religions 2019, 10(11), 628.
- ^ קליין, א' (2011). היבטים בתרבות החומרית של יהודה הכפרית בתקופה הרומית המאוחרת (135–324 לסה"נ). עבודת דוקטור, אוניברסיטת בר-אילן. עמ' 314–315. (Hebrew)
- ^ שדמן, ע' (2016). בין נחל רבה לנחל שילה: תפרוסת היישוב הכפרי בתקופות ההלניסטית, הרומית והביזנטית לאור חפירות וסקרים. עבודת דוקטור, אוניברסיטת בר-אילן. עמ' 271–275. (Hebrew)
- ^ Finkelstein, I. 1993. The Southern Samarian Hills Survey. In E. Stern (ed.). The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, Carta, Vol. 4, pp. 1314.
- ^ Luke 17:11–20
- ^ John 4:1–26
- ^ Acts 8:1
- ^ Acts 8:4–8
- ^ John 4:4
- OCLC 958547332.
From the data given above it can be concluded that the Muslim population of Central Samaria, during the early Muslim period, was not an autochthonous population which had converted to Christianity. They arrived there either by way of migration or as a result of a process of sedentarization of the nomads who had filled the vacuum created by the departing Samaritans at the end of the Byzantine period [...] To sum up: in the only rural region in Palestine in which, according to all the written and archeological sources, the process of Islamization was completed already in the twelfth century, there occurred events consistent with the model propounded by Levtzion and Vryonis: the region was abandoned by its original sedentary population and the subsequent vacuum was apparently filled by nomads who, at a later stage, gradually became sedentarized
- ^ זרטל, א' (1992). סקר הר מנשה. קער שכם, כרך ראשון. תל-אביב וחיפה: אוניברסיטת חיפה ומשרד הביטחון. (Hebrew) 63–62.
- ^ זרטל, א' (1996). סקר הר מנשה. העמקים המזרחיים וספר המדבר, כרך שני. תל-אביב וחיפה: אוניברסיטת חיפה ומשרד הביטחון. 93–91 (Hebrew)
- ^ די סגני, ל' (2002). מרידות השומרונים בארץ-ישראל הביזנטית. בתוך א' שטרן וח' אשל (עורכים), ספר השומרונים. ירושלים: יד יצחק בן-צבי, רשות העתיקות, המנהל האזרחי ליהודה ושומרון קצין מטה לארכיאולוגיה, עמ' 454–480. (Hebrew)
- ^ מגן, י' 2002 .השומרונים בתקופה הרומית – הביזנטית. בתוך א' שטרן וח' אשל (עורכים), ספר השומרונים. ירושלים: יד יצחק בן-צבי, רשות העתיקות, המנהל האזרחי ליהודה ושומרון קצין מטה לארכיאולוגיה, עמ' 213–244. (Hebrew)
- JSTOR 23407269.
- ^ a b M. Levy-Rubin, "New evidence relating to the process of Islamization in Palestine in the Early Muslim Period - The Case of Samaria", in: Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 43 (3), pp. 257–276, 2000, Springer
- ^ Fattal, A. (1958). Le statut légal des non-Musulman en pays d'Islam, Beyrouth: Imprimerie Catholique, pp. 72–73.
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- ^ Alan David Crown, Reinhard Pummer, Abraham Tal (eds.), A Companion to Samaritan Studies, Mohr Siebeck, 1993 pp.70-71.
- ^ al-Bakhīt, Muḥammad ʻAdnān; al-Ḥamūd, Nūfān Rajā (1989). "Daftar mufaṣṣal nāḥiyat Marj Banī ʻĀmir wa-tawābiʻihā wa-lawāḥiqihā allatī kānat fī taṣarruf al-Amīr Ṭarah Bāy sanat 945 ah". www.worldcat.org. Amman: Jordanian University. pp. 1–35. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
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- ^ The Mandate for Palestine. (1922, July 24). League of Nations Council. Retrieved June 23, 2021 from the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs
- ^ "UN partition resolution". Archived from the original on October 29, 2006.
- ^ "Israel Central Bureau of Statistics". Archived from the original on 2012-02-04.
- ^ "Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs".
- ^ "The Center for Regional Councils in Israel". Website. Archived from the original on 2008-09-29.
- ^ Hebrew. "Shomron Regional Council Website".
- ^ "The Geneva Convention". BBC News. 10 December 2009. Retrieved 27 November 2010.
- ^ Lazaroff, Tovah (16 September 2016). "In anti-BDS stand, Hempstead New York signs sister city pact with settler council". Retrieved 24 July 2017.
- S2CID 162363298. Retrieved 2007-09-14.
- ^ "Holy Land Blues". Al-Ahram Weekly. 5–11 January 2006. Archived from the original on 11 March 2006. Retrieved 2007-09-14.
- ^ Wiener, Noah (6 April 2013). "Spurned Samaria: Site of the capital of the Kingdom of Israel blighted by neglect". Biblical Archaeology Society. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
- ^ The Archaeology of Palestine, W.F. Albright, 1960, p. 34
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- ^ Albright, pp.39–40
- ^ Edelman, Diana Vikander. The Origins of the Second Temple: Persian Imperial Policy and the Rebuilding of Jerusalem. Equinox. p. 41.
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- ^ "Keepers: Israelite Samaritan Identity Since Joshua bin Nun". Israelite Samaritan Information Institute. 26 May 2020.
Sources
- ISBN 978-1-444-33593-4.
- Elayi, Josette (2017). Sargon II, King of Assyria. Atlanta: SBL Press. ISBN 978-1628371772.
- Frahm, Eckart (2017). "The Neo-Assyrian Period (ca. 1000–609 BCE)". In E. Frahm (ed.). A Companion to Assyria. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-444-33593-4.
- Gottheil, Richard; Ryssel, Victor; Jastrow, Marcus; Levias, Caspar (1906). "Captivity, or Exile, Babylonian". Jewish Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co.
- Mark, Joshua J. (2014). "Sargon II". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
- Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger Aubrey, eds. (1990). Mercer Dictionary of the Bible. Mercer University Press. pp. 788–789. ISBN 978-0-86554-373-7. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
Sargon ... named the new province, which included what formerly was Israel,Samerina. Thus the territorial designation is credited to the Assyrians and dated to that time; however, "Samaria" probably long before alteratively designated Israel when Samaria became the capital.
- ISBN 978-1-444-33593-4.
- Radner, Karen (2018). Focus on Population Management (video). Organising an Empire: The Assyrian Way. Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München. Archived from the original on 2018-05-09. Retrieved 2018-05-09 – via Coursera.
- Reid, George (1908). "Captivities of the Israelites". Robert Appleton Company.
- Yamada, Keiko; Yamada, Shiego (2017). "Shalmaneser V and His Era, Revisited". In Baruchi-Unna, Amitai; Forti, Tova; Aḥituv, Shmuel; Ephʿal, Israel; Tigay, Jeffrey H. (eds.). "Now It Happened in Those Days": Studies in Biblical, Assyrian, and Other Ancient Near Eastern Historiography Presented to Mordechai Cogan on His 75th Birthday. Vol. 2. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1575067612.
Further reading
- Becking, B. (1992). The Fall of Samaria: An Historical and Archaeological Study. Leiden; New York: E. J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09633-2.
- Franklin, N. (2003). "The Tombs of the Kings of Israel". Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins. 119 (1): 1–11.
- Franklin, N. (2004). "Samaria: from the Bedrock to the Omride Palace". Levant. 36: 189–202. S2CID 162217071.
- Park, Sung Jin (2012). "A New Historical Reconstruction of the Fall of Samaria". Biblica. 93 (1): 98–106.
- Rainey, A. F. (November 1988). "Toward a Precise Date for the Samaria Ostraca". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 272 (272): 69–74. S2CID 163297693.
- Stager, L. E. (February–May 1990). "Shemer's Estate". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 277/278 (277): 93–107. S2CID 163576333.
- Tappy, R. E. (2006). "The Provenance of the Unpublished Ivories from Samaria", pp. 637–56 in "I Will Speak the Riddles of Ancient Times" (Ps 78:2b): Archaeological and Historical Studies in Honor of Amihai Mazar on the Occasion of His Sixtieth Birthday, A. M. Maeir and P. de Miroschedji, eds. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.
- Tappy, R. E. (2007). "The Final Years of Israelite Samaria: Toward a Dialogue Between Texts and Archaeology", pp. 258–79 in Up to the Gates of Ekron: Essays on the Archaeology and History of the Eastern Mediterranean in Honor of Seymour Gitin, S. White Crawford, A. Ben-Tor, J. P. Dessel, W. G. Dever, A. Mazar, and J. Aviram, eds. Jerusalem: The W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research and the Israel Exploration Society.
External links
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 108. .
- Vailhé, Siméon (1912). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 13. .