History of Japan
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The first human inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago have been traced to the Paleolithic, around 38–39,000 years ago.[1] The Jōmon period, named after its cord-marked pottery, was followed by the Yayoi period in the first millennium BC when new inventions were introduced from Asia. During this period, the first known written reference to Japan was recorded in the Chinese Book of Han in the first century AD.
Around the 3rd century BC, the Yayoi people from the continent immigrated to the Japanese archipelago and introduced iron technology and agricultural civilization.[2] Because they had an agricultural civilization, the population of the Yayoi began to grow rapidly and ultimately overwhelmed the Jōmon people, natives of the Japanese archipelago who were hunter-gatherers.[3] Between the fourth and ninth centuries, Japan's many kingdoms and tribes gradually came to be unified under a centralized government, nominally controlled by the Emperor of Japan. The imperial dynasty established at this time continues to this day, albeit in an almost entirely ceremonial role. In 794, a new imperial capital was established at Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto), marking the beginning of the Heian period, which lasted until 1185. The Heian period is considered a golden age of classical Japanese culture. Japanese religious life from this time and onwards was a mix of native Shinto practices and Buddhism.
Over the following centuries, the power of the imperial house decreased, passing first to great clans of civilian aristocrats — most notably the
Portugal and Japan came into contact in 1543, when the Portuguese became the first Europeans to reach Japan by landing in the southern archipelago. They had a significant impact on Japan, even in this initial limited interaction,
The Allies occupied Japan until 1952, during which a new constitution was enacted in 1947 that transformed Japan into the constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy it is today. After 1955, Japan enjoyed very high economic growth under the governance of the Liberal Democratic Party, and became a world economic powerhouse. Since the Lost Decade of the 1990s, Japanese economic growth has slowed.
Prehistoric and ancient Japan
Paleolithic period
Hunter-gatherers arrived in Japan in Paleolithic times, with the oldest evidence dating to around 38–40,000 years ago.[1] Little evidence of their presence remains, as Japan's acidic soils are inhospitable to the process of fossilization. However, the discovery of unique edge-ground axes in Japan dated to over 30,000 years ago may be evidence of the first Homo sapiens in Japan.[4] Early humans likely arrived in Japan by sea on watercraft.[5] Evidence of human habitation has been dated to 32,000 years ago in Okinawa's Yamashita Cave[6] and up to 20,000 years ago on Ishigaki Island's Shiraho Saonetabaru Cave.[7]
Jōmon period
The Jōmon period of prehistoric Japan spans from roughly 13,000 BC
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A vase from the early Jōmon period (11000–7000 BC)
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Middle Jōmon vase (2000 BC)
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Dogū figurine of the late Jōmon period (1000–400 BC)
Yayoi period
The advent of the Yayoi people from the Asian mainland brought fundamental transformations to the Japanese archipelago. The millennial achievements of the Neolithic Revolution took hold of the islands in a relatively short span of centuries, particularly with the development of rice cultivation[14] and metallurgy. Until recently, the onset of this wave of cultural and technological changes was thought to have begun around 400 BC.[15] Radio-carbon evidence now suggests that the new phase started some 500 years earlier, between 1,000 and 800 BC.[16][17] Endowed with bronze and iron weapons and tools initially imported from China and the Korean peninsula, the Yayoi radiated out from northern Kyūshū, gradually supplanting the Jōmon.[18] They also introduced weaving and silk production,[19] new woodworking methods,[16] glassmaking technology,[16] and new architectural styles.[20] The expansion of the Yayoi appears to have brought about a fusion with the indigenous Jōmon, resulting in a small genetic admixture.[21]
These Yayoi technologies originated on the Asian mainland. There is debate among scholars as to what degree their spread can be attributed to migration or to cultural diffusion. The migration theory is supported by genetic and linguistic studies.[16] Historian Hanihara Kazurō has suggested that the annual immigrant influx from the continent range from 350 to 3,000.[22]
The population of Japan began to increase rapidly, perhaps with a 10-fold rise over the Jōmon. Calculations of the increasing population size by the end of the Yayoi period have varied from 1 to 4 million.[23] Skeletal remains from the late Jōmon period reveal a deterioration in already poor standards of health and nutrition, whereas contemporaneous Yayoi archaeological sites possess large structures suggestive of grain storehouses. This shift was accompanied by an increase in both the stratification of society and tribal warfare, indicated by segregated gravesites and military fortifications.[16]
During the Yayoi period, the Yayoi tribes gradually coalesced into a number of kingdoms. In the earliest written work to unambiguously mention Japan, the Book of Han, published in 111 AD, states that one hundred kingdoms comprised Japan, which is referred to as Wa. A later Chinese work of history, the Book of Wei, states that by 240 AD, the powerful kingdom of Yamatai, ruled by the female monarch Himiko, had gained ascendancy over the others, though modern historians continue to debate its location and other aspects of its depiction in the Book of Wei.[24]
Kofun period (c. 250–538)
During the subsequent Kofun period, Japan gradually unified under a single territory. The symbol of the growing power of Japan's new leaders was the kofun burial mounds they constructed from around 250 AD onwards.[25] Many were of massive scales, such as the Daisenryō Kofun, a 486 m-long keyhole-shaped burial mound that took huge teams of laborers fifteen years to complete. It is commonly accepted that the tomb was built for Emperor Nintoku.[26] The kofun were often surrounded by and filled with numerous haniwa clay sculptures, often in the shape of warriors and horses.[25]
The center of the unified state was Yamato in the Kinai region of central Japan.[25] The rulers of the Yamato state were a hereditary line of emperors who still reign as the world's longest dynasty. The rulers of the Yamato extended their power across Japan through military conquest, but their preferred method of expansion was to convince local leaders to accept their authority in exchange for positions of influence in the government.[27] Many of the powerful local clans who joined the Yamato state became known as the uji.[28]
These leaders sought and received formal diplomatic recognition from China, and Chinese accounts record five successive such leaders as the Five kings of Wa. Craftsmen and scholars from China and the Three Kingdoms of Korea played an important role in transmitting continental technologies and administrative skills to Japan during this period.[28]
Historians agree that there was a big struggle between the Yamato federation and the Izumo Federation centuries before written records.[29]
Classical Japan
Asuka period (538–710)
The Asuka period began as early as 538 AD with the introduction of the Buddhist religion from the Korean kingdom of Baekje.[30] Since then, Buddhism has coexisted with Japan's native Shinto religion, in what is today known as Shinbutsu-shūgō.[31] The period draws its name from the de facto imperial capital, Asuka, in the Kinai region.[32]
The Buddhist
In 645, the Soga clan were
The art of the Asuka period embodies the themes of Buddhist art.[40] One of the most famous works is the Buddhist temple of Hōryū-ji, commissioned by Prince Shōtoku and completed in 607 AD. It is now the oldest wooden structure in the world.[41]
Nara period (710–794)
In 710, the government constructed a grandiose new capital at
During this period, Japan suffered a series of natural disasters, including wildfires, droughts, famines, and outbreaks of disease, such as a
Heian period (794–1185)
The Heian period (平安時代, Heian jidai) is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. It followed the Nara period, beginning when the 50th emperor, Emperor Kammu, moved the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto). Heian (平安) means "peace" in Japanese.
In 784, the capital moved briefly to Nagaoka-kyō, then again in 794 to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto), which remained the capital until 1868.[49] Political power within the court soon passed to the Fujiwara clan, a family of court nobles who grew increasingly close to the imperial family through intermarriage.[50] Between 812 and 814 CE, a smallpox epidemic killed almost half of the Japanese population.[51]
In 858,
Throughout the Heian period, the power of the imperial court declined. The court became so self-absorbed with power struggles and with the artistic pursuits of court nobles that it neglected the administration of government outside the capital.[50] The nationalization of land undertaken as part of the ritsuryō state decayed as various noble families and religious orders succeeded in securing tax-exempt status for their private shōen manors.[52] By the eleventh century, more land in Japan was controlled by shōen owners than by the central government. The imperial court was thus deprived of the tax revenue to pay for its national army. In response, the owners of the shōen set up their own armies of samurai warriors.[54] Two powerful noble families that had descended from branches of the imperial family,[55] the Taira and Minamoto clans, acquired large armies and many shōen outside the capital. The central government began to use these two warrior clans to suppress rebellions and piracy.[56] Japan's population stabilized during the late Heian period after hundreds of years of decline.[57]
During the early Heian period, the imperial court successfully consolidated its control over the
In 1156, a dispute over succession to the throne erupted and the two rival claimants (Emperor Go-Shirakawa and Emperor Sutoku) hired the Taira and Minamoto clans in the hopes of securing the throne by military force. During this war, the Taira clan led by Taira no Kiyomori defeated the Minamoto clan. Kiyomori used his victory to accumulate power for himself in Kyoto and even installed his own grandson Antoku as emperor. The outcome of this war led to the rivalry between the Minamoto and Taira clans. As a result, the dispute and power struggle between both clans led to the Heiji rebellion in 1160. In 1180, Taira no Kiyomori was challenged by an uprising led by Minamoto no Yoritomo, a member of the Minamoto clan whom Kiyomori had exiled to Kamakura.[62] Though Taira no Kiyomori died in 1181, the ensuing bloody Genpei War between the Taira and Minamoto families continued for another four years. The victory of the Minamoto clan was sealed in 1185, when a force commanded by Yoritomo's younger brother, Minamoto no Yoshitsune, scored a decisive victory at the naval Battle of Dan-no-ura. Yoritomo and his retainers thus became the de facto rulers of Japan.[63]
Heian culture
During the Heian period, the imperial court was a vibrant center of high art and culture.
The development of the
Feudal Japan
Kamakura period (1185–1333)
Upon the consolidation of power,
Legitimacy was conferred on the shogunate by the Imperial court, but the shogunate was the de facto rulers of the country. The court maintained bureaucratic and religious functions, and the shogunate welcomed participation by members of the aristocratic class. The older institutions remained intact in a weakened form, and Kyoto remained the official capital. This system has been contrasted with the "simple warrior rule" of the later Muromachi period.[70]
Yoritomo soon turned on Yoshitsune, who was initially harbored by Fujiwara no Hidehira, the grandson of Kiyohira and the de facto ruler of northern Honshu. In 1189, after Hidehira's death, his successor Yasuhira attempted to curry favor with Yoritomo by attacking Yoshitsune's home. Although Yoshitsune was killed, Yoritomo still invaded and conquered the Northern Fujiwara clan's territories.[73] In subsequent centuries, Yoshitsune would become a legendary figure, portrayed in countless works of literature as an idealized tragic hero.[74]
After Yoritomo's death in 1199, the office of shogun weakened. Behind the scenes, Yoritomo's wife Hōjō Masako became the true power behind the government. In 1203, her father, Hōjō Tokimasa, was appointed regent to the shogun, Yoritomo's son Minamoto no Sanetomo. Henceforth, the Minamoto shoguns became puppets of the Hōjō regents, who wielded actual power.[75]
The regime that Yoritomo had established, and which was kept in place by his successors, was decentralized and
In 1221, the retired Emperor Go-Toba instigated what became known as the Jōkyū War, a rebellion against the shogunate, in an attempt to restore political power to the court. The rebellion was a failure and led to Go-Toba being exiled to Oki Island, along with two other emperors, the retired Emperor Tsuchimikado and Emperor Juntoku, who were exiled to Tosa Province and Sado Island respectively.[78] The shogunate further consolidated its political power relative to the Kyoto aristocracy.[79]
The samurai armies of the whole nation were mobilized in 1274 and 1281 to confront two full-scale invasions launched by Kublai Khan of the Mongol Empire.[80] Though outnumbered by an enemy equipped with superior weaponry, the Japanese fought the Mongols to a standstill in Kyushu on both occasions until the Mongol fleet was destroyed by typhoons called kamikaze, meaning "divine wind". In spite of the Kamakura shogunate's victory, the defense so depleted its finances that it was unable to provide compensation to its vassals for their role in the victory. This had permanent negative consequences for the shogunate's relations with the samurai class.[81] Discontent among the samurai proved decisive in ending the Kamakura shogunate. In 1333, Emperor Go-Daigo launched a rebellion in the hope of restoring full power to the imperial court. The shogunate sent General Ashikaga Takauji to quell the revolt, but Takauji and his men instead joined forces with Emperor Go-Daigo and overthrew the Kamakura shogunate.[82]
Japan nevertheless entered a period of prosperity and population growth starting around 1250.[83] In rural areas, the greater use of iron tools and fertilizer, improved irrigation techniques, and double-cropping increased productivity and rural villages grew.[84] Fewer famines and epidemics allowed cities to grow and commerce to boom.[83] Buddhism, which had been largely a religion of the elites, was brought to the masses by prominent monks, such as Hōnen (1133–1212), who established Pure Land Buddhism in Japan, and Nichiren (1222–1282), who founded Nichiren Buddhism. Zen Buddhism spread widely among the samurai class.[85]
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Ancient drawing depicting a samurai battling forces of the Mongol Empire
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Samurai Mitsui Sukenaga (right) defeating the Mongolian invasion army (left)
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Shiraishi clan
Muromachi period (1333–1568)
Takauji and many other samurai soon became dissatisfied with Emperor Go-Daigo's Kenmu Restoration, an ambitious attempt to monopolize power in the imperial court. Takauji rebelled after Go-Daigo refused to appoint him shōgun. In 1338, Takauji captured Kyoto and installed a rival member of the imperial family to the throne, Emperor Kōmyō, who did appoint him shogun.[86] Go-Daigo responded by fleeing to the southern city of Yoshino, where he set up a rival government. This ushered in a prolonged period of conflict between the Northern Court and the Southern Court.[87]
Takauji set up his shogunate in the Muromachi district of Kyoto. However, the shogunate was faced with the twin challenges of fighting the Southern Court and of maintaining its authority over its own subordinate governors.
During the final century of the Ashikaga shogunate the country descended into another, more violent period of civil war. This started in 1467 when the Ōnin War broke out over who would succeed the ruling shogun. The daimyōs each took sides and burned Kyoto to the ground while battling for their preferred candidate. By the time the succession was settled in 1477, the shogun had lost all power over the daimyō, who now ruled hundreds of independent states throughout Japan.[89] During this Warring States period, daimyōs fought among themselves for control of the country.[90] Some of the most powerful daimyōs of the era were Uesugi Kenshin and Takeda Shingen.[91] One enduring symbol of this era was the ninja, skilled spies and assassins hired by daimyōs. Few definite historical facts are known about the secretive lifestyles of the ninja, who became the subject of many legends.[92] In addition to the daimyōs, rebellious peasants and "warrior monks" affiliated with Buddhist temples also raised their own armies.[93]
Nanban trade
Amid this on-going anarchy, a trading ship was blown off course and landed in 1543 on the Japanese island of
Initiating direct commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West, the first map made of Japan in the west was represented in 1568 by the Portuguese cartographer Fernão Vaz Dourado.[97]
The Portuguese were allowed to trade and create colonies where they could convert new believers into the Christian religion. The civil war status in Japan greatly benefited the Portuguese, as well as several competing gentlemen who sought to attract Portuguese black boats and their trade to their domains. Initially, the Portuguese stayed on the lands belonging to Matsura Takanobu, Firando (Hirado),[98] and in the province of Bungo, lands of Ōtomo Sōrin, but in 1562 they moved to Yokoseura when the Daimyô there, Omura Sumitada, offered to be the first lord to convert to Christianity, adopting the name of Dom Bartolomeu. In 1564, he faced a rebellion instigated by the Buddhist clergy and Yokoseura was destroyed.
In 1561 forces under
In 1571, Dom Bartolomeu, also known as
Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's son Toyotomi Hideyori and used his position to gain political and military support. When open war broke out, Ieyasu defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. In 1603 the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo enacted measures including buke shohatto, as a code of conduct to control the autonomous daimyōs, and in 1639 the isolationist sakoku ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period (1603–1868), this act ended Portuguese influence after 100 years in Japanese territory, and also aimed to limit the political presence of any foreign power.[94]
Muromachi culture
In spite of the war, Japan's relative economic prosperity, which had begun in the Kamakura period, continued well into the Muromachi period. By 1450 Japan's population stood at ten million, compared to six million at the end of the thirteenth century.
Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568-1600)
During the second half of the 16th century, Japan gradually reunified under two powerful warlords:
Nobunaga was the daimyō of the small province of Owari. He burst onto the scene suddenly, in 1560, when, during the Battle of Okehazama, his army defeated a force several times its size led by the powerful daimyō Imagawa Yoshimoto.[109] Nobunaga was renowned for his strategic leadership and his ruthlessness. He encouraged Christianity to incite hatred toward his Buddhist enemies and to forge strong relationships with European arms merchants. He equipped his armies with muskets and trained them with innovative tactics.[110] He promoted talented men regardless of their social status, including his peasant servant Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who became one of his best generals.[111]
The Azuchi–Momoyama period began in 1568, when Nobunaga seized Kyoto and thus effectively brought an end to the Ashikaga shogunate.
As Hideyoshi's power expanded, he dreamed of conquering China and launched two massive
Early modern Japan
Edo period (1600–1868)
The Edo period was characterized by relative peace and stability[119] under the tight control of the Tokugawa shogunate, which ruled from the eastern city of Edo (modern Tokyo).[120] In 1603, Emperor Go-Yōzei declared Tokugawa Ieyasu shōgun, and Ieyasu abdicated two years later to groom his son as the second shōgun of what became a long dynasty.[121] Nevertheless, it took time for the Tokugawas to consolidate their rule. In 1609, the shōgun gave the daimyō of the Satsuma Domain permission to invade the Ryukyu Kingdom for perceived insults towards the shogunate; the Satsuma victory began 266 years of Ryukyu's dual subordination to Satsuma and China.[99][122] Ieyasu led the Siege of Osaka that ended with the destruction of the Toyotomi clan in 1615.[123] Soon after the shogunate promulgated the Laws for the Military Houses, which imposed tighter controls on the daimyōs,[124] and the alternate attendance system, which required each daimyō to spend every other year in Edo.[125] Even so, the daimyōs continued to maintain a significant degree of autonomy in their domains.[126] The central government of the shogunate in Edo, which quickly became the most populous city in the world,[120] took counsel from a group of senior advisors known as rōjū and employed samurai as bureaucrats.[127] The emperor in Kyoto was funded lavishly by the government but was allowed no political power.[128]
The Tokugawa shogunate went to great lengths to suppress social unrest. Harsh penalties, including crucifixion, beheading, and death by boiling, were decreed for even the most minor offenses, though criminals of high social class were often given the option of
During the first century of Tokugawa rule, Japan's population doubled to thirty million, mostly because of agricultural growth; the population remained stable for the rest of the period.[133] The shogunate's construction of roads, elimination of road and bridge tolls, and standardization of coinage promoted commercial expansion that also benefited the merchants and artisans of the cities.[134] City populations grew,[135] but almost ninety percent of the population continued to live in rural areas.[136] Both the inhabitants of cities and of rural communities would benefit from one of the most notable social changes of the Edo period: increased literacy and numeracy. The number of private schools greatly expanded, particularly those attached to temples and shrines, and raised literacy to thirty percent. This may have been the world's highest rate at the time[137] and drove a flourishing commercial publishing industry, which grew to produce hundreds of titles per year.[138] In the area of numeracy – approximated by an index measuring people's ability to report an exact rather than a rounded age (age-heaping method), and which level shows a strong correlation to later economic development of a country – Japan's level was comparable to that of north-west European countries, and moreover, Japan's index came close to the 100 percent mark throughout the nineteenth century. These high levels of both literacy and numeracy were part of the socio-economical foundation for Japan's strong growth rates during the following century.[139]
Culture and philosophy
The Edo period was a time of cultural flourishing, as the merchant classes grew in wealth and began spending their income on cultural and social pursuits.[140][141] Members of the merchant class who patronized culture and entertainment were said to live hedonistic lives, which came to be called the ukiyo ("floating world").[142] This lifestyle inspired ukiyo-zōshi popular novels and ukiyo-e art, the latter of which were often woodblock prints[143] that progressed to greater sophistication and use of multiple printed colors.[144]
Forms of theater such as kabuki and bunraku puppet theater became widely popular.[145] These new forms of entertainment were (at the time) accompanied by short songs (kouta) and music played on the shamisen, a new import to Japan in 1600.[146] Haiku, whose greatest master is generally agreed to be Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694), also rose as a major form of poetry.[147] Geisha, a new profession of entertainers, also became popular. They would provide conversation, sing, and dance for customers, though they would not sleep with them.[148]
The Tokugawas sponsored and were heavily influenced by Neo-Confucianism, which led the government to divide society into four classes based on the four occupations.[149] The samurai class claimed to follow the ideology of bushido, literally "the way of the warrior".[150]
Decline and fall of the shogunate
By the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the shogunate showed signs of weakening.[151] The dramatic growth of agriculture that had characterized the early Edo period had ended,[133] and the government handled the devastating Tenpō famines poorly.[151] Peasant unrest grew and government revenues fell.[152] The shogunate cut the pay of the already financially distressed samurai, many of whom worked side jobs to make a living.[153] Discontented samurai were soon to play a major role in engineering the downfall of the Tokugawa shogunate.[154]
At the same time, the people drew inspiration from new ideas and fields of study. Dutch books brought into Japan stimulated interest in Western learning, called rangaku or "Dutch learning".[155] The physician Sugita Genpaku, for instance, used concepts from Western medicine to help spark a revolution in Japanese ideas of human anatomy.[156] The scholarly field of kokugaku or "national learning", developed by scholars such as Motoori Norinaga and Hirata Atsutane, promoted what it asserted were native Japanese values. For instance, it criticized the Chinese-style Neo-Confucianism advocated by the shogunate and emphasized the Emperor's divine authority, which the Shinto faith taught had its roots in Japan's mythic past, which was referred to as the "Age of the Gods".[157]
The arrival in 1853 of a fleet of American ships commanded by Commodore Matthew C. Perry threw Japan into turmoil. The US government aimed to end Japan's isolationist policies. The shogunate had no defense against Perry's gunboats and had to agree to his demands that American ships be permitted to acquire provisions and trade at Japanese ports.[151] The Western powers imposed what became known as "unequal treaties" on Japan which stipulated that Japan must allow citizens of these countries to visit or reside on Japanese territory and must not levy tariffs on their imports or try them in Japanese courts.[158]
The shogunate's failure to oppose the Western powers angered many Japanese, particularly those of the southern domains of Chōshū and Satsuma.[159] Many samurai there, inspired by the nationalist doctrines of the kokugaku school, adopted the slogan of sonnō jōi ("revere the emperor, expel the barbarians").[160] The two domains went on to form an alliance. In August 1866, soon after becoming shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, struggled to maintain power as civil unrest continued.[161] The Chōshū and Satsuma domains in 1868 convinced the young Emperor Meiji and his advisors to issue a rescript calling for an end to the Tokugawa shogunate. The armies of Chōshū and Satsuma soon marched on Edo and the ensuing Boshin War led to the fall of the shogunate.[162]
Modern Japan
Meiji period (1868–1912)
The emperor was restored to nominal supreme power,
Political and social changes
The Meiji government abolished the Edo class structure[167] and replaced the feudal domains of the daimyōs with prefectures.[164] It instituted comprehensive tax reform and lifted the ban on Christianity.[167] Major government priorities also included the introduction of railways, telegraph lines, and a universal education system.[168] The Meiji government promoted widespread Westernization[169] and hired hundreds of advisers from Western nations with expertise in such fields as education, mining, banking, law, military affairs, and transportation to remodel Japan's institutions.[170] The Japanese adopted the Gregorian calendar, Western clothing, and Western hairstyles.[171] One leading advocate of Westernization was the popular writer Fukuzawa Yukichi.[172] As part of its Westernization drive, the Meiji government enthusiastically sponsored the importation of Western science, above all medical science. In 1893, Kitasato Shibasaburō established the Institute for Infectious Diseases, which would soon become world-famous,[173] and in 1913, Hideyo Noguchi proved the link between syphilis and paresis.[174] Furthermore, the introduction of European literary styles to Japan sparked a boom in new works of prose fiction. Characteristic authors of the period included Futabatei Shimei and Mori Ōgai,[175] although the most famous of the Meiji era writers was Natsume Sōseki,[176] who wrote satirical, autobiographical, and psychological novels[177] combining both the older and newer styles.[178] Ichiyō Higuchi, a leading female author, took inspiration from earlier literary models of the Edo period.[179]
Government institutions developed rapidly in response to the Freedom and People's Rights Movement, a grassroots campaign demanding greater popular participation in politics. The leaders of this movement included Itagaki Taisuke and Ōkuma Shigenobu.[180] Itō Hirobumi, the first Prime Minister of Japan, responded by writing the Meiji Constitution, which was promulgated in 1889. The new constitution established an elected lower house, the House of Representatives, but its powers were restricted. Only two percent of the population were eligible to vote, and legislation proposed in the House required the support of the unelected upper house, the House of Peers. Both the cabinet of Japan and the Japanese military were directly responsible not to the elected legislature but to the emperor.[181] Concurrently, the Japanese government also developed a form of Japanese nationalism under which Shinto became the state religion and the emperor was declared a living god.[182] Schools nationwide instilled patriotic values and loyalty to the emperor.[168]
Rise of imperialism and the military
In December 1871, a Ryukyuan ship was shipwrecked on Taiwan and the crew were massacred. In 1874, using the incident as a pretext, Japan launched a military expedition to Taiwan to assert their claims to the Ryukyu Islands. The expedition featured the first instance of the Japanese military ignoring the orders of the civilian government, as the expedition set sail after being ordered to postpone.[183] Yamagata Aritomo, who was born a samurai in the Chōshū Domain, was a key force behind the modernization and enlargement of the Imperial Japanese Army, especially the introduction of national conscription.[184] The new army was put to use in 1877 to crush the Satsuma Rebellion of discontented samurai in southern Japan led by the former Meiji leader Saigo Takamori.[185]
The Japanese military played a key role in Japan's expansion abroad. The government believed that Japan had to acquire its own colonies to compete with the Western colonial powers. After consolidating its control over
Japan next clashed with Russia, which was expanding its power in Asia. The Battle of Yalu River was the first time in decades that an Asian power defeated a western power.[191] The Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05 ended with the dramatic Battle of Tsushima, which was another victory for Japan's new navy. Japan thus laid claim to Korea as a protectorate in 1905, followed by full annexation in 1910.[192] The defeat of Russia in the war had set in motion a change in the global world order with the emergence of Japan as not only a regional power, but rather, the main Asian power.[193]
Economic modernization and labor unrest
During the Meiji period, Japan underwent a rapid transition towards an industrial economy.[194] Both the Japanese government and private entrepreneurs adopted Western technology and knowledge to create factories capable of producing a wide range of goods.[195]
By the end of the period, the majority of Japan's exports were manufactured goods.
Japan enjoyed solid economic growth at this time and most people lived longer and healthier lives. The population rose from 34 million in 1872 to 52 million in 1915.
Taishō period (1912–1926)
During the short reign of
Japan's participation in World War I on the side of the Allies sparked unprecedented economic growth and earned Japan new colonies in the South Pacific seized from Germany.[209] After the war, Japan signed the Treaty of Versailles and enjoyed good international relations through its membership in the League of Nations and participation in international disarmament conferences.[210] The Great Kantō earthquake in September 1923 left over 100,000 dead, and combined with the resultant fires destroyed the homes of more than three million.[211] In the aftermath of the earthquake, the Kantō Massacre occurred, in which the Japanese military, police, and gangs of vigilantes murdered thousands of Korean people after rumors emerged that Koreans had been poisoning wells. The rumors were later described as false by numerous Japanese sources.[212]
The growth of popular prose fiction, which began during the Meiji period, continued into the Taishō period as literacy rates rose and book prices dropped.[213] Notable literary figures of the era included short story writer Ryūnosuke Akutagawa[214] and the novelist Haruo Satō. Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, described as "perhaps the most versatile literary figure of his day" by the historian Conrad Totman, produced many works during the Taishō period influenced by European literature, though his 1929 novel Some Prefer Nettles reflects deep appreciation for the virtues of traditional Japanese culture.[215] At the end of the Taishō period, Tarō Hirai, known by his penname Edogawa Ranpo, began writing popular mystery and crime stories.[214]
Shōwa period (1926–1989)
Emperor Hirohito's sixty-three-year reign from 1926 to 1989 is the longest in recorded Japanese history.[216] The first twenty years were characterized by the rise of extreme nationalism and a series of expansionist wars. After suffering defeat in World War II, Japan was occupied by foreign powers for the first time in its history, and then re-emerged as a major world economic power.[217]
Manchurian Incident and the Second Sino-Japanese War
Left-wing groups had been subject to violent suppression by the end of the Taishō period,
Prime Minister
Japan's expansionist vision grew increasingly bold. Many of Japan's political elite aspired to have Japan acquire new territory for resource extraction and settlement of surplus population.
The United States opposed Japan's invasion of China and responded with increasingly stringent economic sanctions intended to deprive Japan of the resources to continue its war in China.
World War II
In late 1941, Japanese government, led by Prime Minister and General Hideki Tojo, decided to break the US-led embargo through force of arms.[230] On 7 December 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy launched a surprise attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. This brought the US into World War II on the side of the Allies. Japan then successfully invaded the Asian colonies of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands, including the Philippines, Malaya, Hong Kong, Singapore, Burma, and the Dutch East Indies.[231] In the early stages of the war, Japan scored victory after victory.
The tide began to turn against Japan following the
Life in Japan became increasingly difficult for civilians due to stringent rationing of food, electrical outages, and a brutal crackdown on dissent.[236] In 1944 the US Army captured the island of Saipan, which allowed the United States to begin widespread bombing raids on the Japanese mainland.[237] These destroyed over half of the total area of Japan's major cities.[238] The Battle of Okinawa, fought between April and June 1945, was the largest naval operation of the war and left 115,000 soldiers and 150,000 Okinawan civilians dead, suggesting that the planned invasion of mainland Japan would be even bloodier.[239] The Japanese superbattleship Yamato was sunk en route to aid in the Battle of Okinawa.[240]
However, on 6 August 1945, the US dropped an atomic bomb
Occupation of Japan
Japan experienced dramatic political and social transformation under the Allied occupation in 1945–1952. US General
The occupation sought to decentralize power in Japan by breaking up the
The
Postwar growth and prosperity
Although the Japanese economy was in bad shape in the immediate postwar years, an austerity program implemented in 1949 by finance expert Joseph Dodge ended inflation.[262] The Korean War (1950–1953) was a major boon to Japanese business.[263] In 1949 the Yoshida cabinet created the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) with a mission to promote economic growth through close cooperation between the government and big business. MITI sought successfully to promote manufacturing and heavy industry,[264] and encourage exports.[265] The factors behind Japan's postwar economic growth included technology and quality control techniques imported from the West, close economic and defense cooperation with the United States, non-tariff barriers to imports, restrictions on labor unionization, long work hours, and a generally favorable global economic environment.[266] Japanese corporations successfully retained a loyal and experienced workforce through the system of lifetime employment, which assured their employees a safe job.[267]
By 1955, the Japanese economy had grown beyond prewar levels,
Japan became a member of the
Among cultural developments, the immediate post-occupation period became a golden age for Japanese cinema.[280] The reasons for this include the abolition of government censorship, low film production costs, expanded access to new film techniques and technologies, and huge domestic audiences at a time when other forms of recreation were relatively scarce.[281] On 1 October 1964, Japan's first high-speed rail line was built called the Tokaido Shinkansen.[282] It is also the oldest high-speed rail system in the world.[282]
Heisei period (1989–2019)
Emperor
Japan's dealing with its war legacy strained relations with China and South Korea. Japanese officials and emperors have made over 50 formal war apologies since the 1950s. However, some politicians of China and South Korea found the official apologies, such as those of the Emperor in 1990 and the Murayama Statement of 1995, inadequate or insincere.[290] Nationalist politics have exacerbated this, such as denial of the Nanjing Massacre and other war crimes,[291] revisionist history textbooks, which provoked protests in East Asia.[292] Japanese politicians make frequent visits to Yasukuni Shrine to commemorate the people who died in wars from 1868 to 1954, but convicted war criminals are among the enshrined.[293]
The
On 11 March 2011,
Reiwa period (2019–present)
Emperor Naruhito's reign began upon the abdication of his father, Emperor Akihito, on 1 May 2019.[300]
In 2020, Tokyo was due to host the Summer Olympics for the second time since 1964. Japan was the second Asian country (to South Korea) to host the Olympics twice. However, due to the global outbreak and economic impact of COVID-19 pandemic, the Summer Olympics were postponed to 2021; they took place from 23 July to 8 August 2021.[301] Japan ranked third place, with 27 gold medals.[302]
When the
On 8 July 2022, former Prime Minister
After 2022 visit by Nancy Pelosi to Taiwan, China conducted "precision missile strikes" in the ocean around Taiwan's coastline on August 4, 2022.[306] These military exercises raised tensions in the region.[306] The Japanese Ministry of Defense reported that this was the first time ballistic missiles launched by China landed in Japan's exclusive economic zone and lodged a diplomatic protest with Beijing.[307] Five Chinese missiles landed in Japan's EEZ off Hateruma which is near Taiwan.[306] Japanese Defense Minister Nobuo Kishi said these missiles are "serious threats to Japan's national security and the safety of the Japanese people."[306]
On December 16, 2022, Japan announced a major shift in its military policy by acquiring counterstrike capabilities and a defense budget increase to 2% of GDP (¥43 trillion ($315 billion) by 2027.[308][309] The impetuses of this increase are regional security concerns over China, North Korea, and Russia.[308] This will leapfrog Japan from the world's ninth-largest defense spender to third, behind only the United States and China.[310]
Social conditions
Social stratification in Japan became pronounced during the Yayoi period. Expanding trade and agriculture increased the wealth of society, which was increasingly monopolized by social elites.[311] By 600 AD, a class structure had developed which included court aristocrats, the families of local magnates, commoners, and slaves.[312] Over 90% were commoners, who included farmers, merchants, and artisans.[313] During the late Heian period, the governing elite consisted of three classes. The traditional aristocracy shared power with Buddhist monks and samurai,[313] though the latter became increasingly dominant in the Kamakura and Muromachi periods.[314] These periods witnessed the rise of the merchant class, which diversified into a greater variety of specialized occupations.[315]
Women initially held social and political equality with men,[312] and archaeological evidence suggests a prehistorical preference for female rulers in western Japan. Female Emperors appear in recorded history until the Meiji Constitution declared strict male-only ascension in 1889.[316] Chinese Confucian-style patriarchy was first codified in the 7th–8th centuries with the ritsuryō system,[317] which introduced a patrilineal family register with a male head of household.[318] Women until then had held important roles in government which thereafter gradually diminished, though even in the late Heian period women wielded considerable court influence.[316] Marital customs and many laws governing private property remained gender neutral.[319]
For reasons that are unclear to historians the status of women rapidly deteriorated from the fourteenth century and onwards.[320] Women of all social classes lost the right to own and inherit property and were increasingly viewed as inferior to men.[321] Hideyoshi's land survey of the 1590s further entrenched the status of men as dominant landholders.[322] During the US occupation following World War II , women gained legal equality with men,[323] but faced widespread workplace discrimination. A movement for women's rights led to the passage of an equal employment law in 1986, but by the 1990s women held only 10% of management positions.[324]
Hideyoshi's land survey of the 1590s designated all who cultivated the land as commoners, an act which granted effective freedom to most of Japan's slaves.[325]
In the Edo period, the Tokugawa shogunate, citing neo-Confucian theory, ruled by dividing the people into four main categories. Older scholars believed that there were Shi-nō-kō-shō (士農工商, four occupations) of "samurai, peasants (hyakushō), craftsmen, and merchants" (chōnin) under the daimyo, with 80% of peasants under the 5% samurai class, followed by craftsmen and merchants.[330] However, various studies have revealed since about 1995 that the classes of peasants, craftsmen, and merchants under the samurai are equal, and the old hierarchy chart has been removed from Japanese history textbooks. In other words, peasants, craftsmen, and merchants are not a social pecking order, but a social classification.[326][327][328] Marriage between certain classes was generally prohibited. In particular, marriage between daimyo and court nobles was forbidden by the Tokugawa shogunate because it could lead to political maneuvering. For the same reason, marriages between daimyo and high-ranking hatamoto of the samurai class required the approval of the Tokugawa shogunate. It was also forbidden for a member of the samurai class to marry a peasant, craftsman, or merchant, but this was done through a loophole in which a person from a lower class was adopted into the samurai class and then married. Since there was an economic advantage for a poor samurai class person to marry a wealthy merchant or peasant class woman, they would adopt a merchant or peasant class woman into the samurai class as an adopted daughter and then marry her.[331][332] The social stratification had little bearing on economic conditions: many samurai lived in poverty[333] and the wealth of the merchant class grew throughout the period as the commercial economy developed and urbanization grew.[334] The Edo-era social power structure proved untenable and gave way following the Meiji Restoration to one in which commercial power played an increasingly significant political role.[335]
Although all social classes were legally abolished at the start of the Meiji period,[167] income inequality greatly increased.[336] New economic class divisions were formed between capitalist business owners who formed the new middle class, small shopkeepers of the old middle class, the working class in factories, rural landlords, and tenant farmers.[337] The great disparities of income between the classes dissipated during and after World War II, eventually declining to levels that were among the lowest in the industrialized world.[336] Some postwar surveys indicated that up to 90% of Japanese self-identified as being middle class.[338]
Populations of workers in professions considered unclean, such as leatherworkers and those who handled the dead, developed in the 15th and 16th centuries into hereditary outcast communities.[339] These people, later called burakumin, fell outside the Edo-period class structure and suffered discrimination that lasted after the class system was abolished.[339] Though activism has improved the social conditions of those from burakumin backgrounds, discrimination in employment and education has lingered into the 21st century.[339]
See also
- Economic history of Japan
- Higashiyama period
- Historiography of Japan
- History of East Asia
- History of Japanese art
- History of Japanese Americans
- History of Japanese foreign relations
- Foreign relations of Meiji Japan
- Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, 1930–1945
- History of Japan–Korea relations
- History of Sino-Japanese relations, China-Japan
- Japanese foreign policy on Southeast Asia
- Japan–Soviet Union relations
- History of Tokyo
- List of Emperors of Japan
- List of prime ministers of Japan
- Timeline of Japanese history
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- ^ a b 第35回 教科書から『士農工商』が消えた ー後編ー 令和3年広報うき「ウキカラ」8月号. Uki, Kumamoto (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 30 August 2023. Retrieved 7 March 2024.
- ^ a b 人権意識のアップデート (PDF). Shimonoseki (in Japanese). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 June 2023. Retrieved 7 March 2024.
- ^ 家格. Kotobank (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 7 March 2024. Retrieved 7 March 2024.
- ^ Neary 2009, p. 390-391.
- ^ 結婚は主君の許可が必要だが、離婚するときはどうだった?江戸時代「武士」の一生行事 (in Japanese). The Asahi Shimbun. 31 January 2022. Archived from the original on 7 March 2024. Retrieved 7 March 2024.
- ^ 江戸時代の武家の結婚は簡単じゃなかった。幕府の許可も必要だった. Livedoor News (in Japanese). 6 June 2023. Archived from the original on 7 March 2024. Retrieved 7 March 2024.
- ^ Neary 2009, p. 391.
- ^ Neary 2009, p. 392.
- ^ Neary 2009, p. 393.
- ^ S2CID 8976082.
- ^ Neary 2009, p. 397.
- ISBN 978-0520213616.
- ^ S2CID 142516741.
Cited sources
- Farris, William Wayne (1995). Population, Disease, and Land in Early Japan, 645–900. Cambridge, Massachusetts: ISBN 978-0-674-69005-9.
- Farris, William Wayne (2009). Japan to 1600: A Social and Economic History. Honolulu, HI: ISBN 978-0-8248-3379-4.
- Gao, Bai (2009). "The Postwar Japanese Economy". In ISBN 978-1-4051-9339-9.
- Hane, Mikiso (1991). Premodern Japan: A Historical Survey. Boulder, CO: ISBN 978-0-8133-4970-1.
- Henshall, Kenneth (2012). A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. London: ISBN 978-0-230-34662-8. online
- Connaughton, R. M. (1988). The War of the Rising Sun and the Tumbling Bear—A Military History of the Russo-Japanese War 1904–5. London. ISBN 0-415-00906-5.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, David (2005). "The Immediate Origins of the War". In Steinberg, John; Menning, Bruce; Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, David; Wolff, David; Yokote, Shinji (eds.). The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective: World War Zero. Vol. I. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-474-0704-1.
- Holcombe, Charles (2017). A History Of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press.
- Jansen, Marius (2000). The Making of Modern Japan. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard U. ISBN 0674009916.
- ISBN 978-0-231-11441-7.
- Kerr, George (1958). Okinawa: History of an Island People. Rutland, Vermont: Tuttle Company.
- Large, Stephen S. (2007). "Oligarchy, Democracy, and Fascism". A Companion to Japanese History. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing.
- Meyer, Milton W. (2009). Japan: A Concise History. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9780742557932.
- McClain, James L. (2002). Japan: A Modern History. New York: ISBN 978-0-393-04156-9.
- Morton, W Scott; Olenike, J Kenneth (2004). Japan: Its History and Culture. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9780071460620.
- Neary, Ian (2009). "Class and Social Stratification". In Tsutsui, William M. (ed.). A Companion to Japanese History. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 389–406. ISBN 978-1-4051-9339-9.
- Perez, Louis G. (1998). The History of Japan. Westport, CT: ISBN 978-0-313-30296-1.
- ISBN 978-0-8047-0523-3.
- Sims, Richard (2001). Japanese Political History since the Meiji Restoration, 1868–2000. New York: Palgrave. ISBN 9780312239152.
- Togo, Kazuhiko (2005). Japan's Foreign Policy 1945–2003: The Quest for a Proactive Policy. Boston: Brill. ISBN 9789004147966.
- Tonomura, Hitomi (2009). "Women and Sexuality in Premodern Japan". In Tsutsui, William M. (ed.). A Companion to Japanese History. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 351–371. ISBN 978-1-4051-9339-9.
- ISBN 978-1-119-02235-0.
- Walker, Brett (2015). A Concise History of Japan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107004184.
- ISBN 978-0-9882259-4-7.
Further reading
- Chang, Richard T. (1970). From Prejudice to Tolerance. A Study of the Japanese Image of the West, 1826–1864. Tokyo, Sophia University.
- Garon, Sheldon (May 1994). "Rethinking Modernization and Modernity in Japanese History: A Focus on State-Society Relations". Journal of Asian Studies 53#2, pp. 346–366. JSTOR 2059838.
- Hara, Katsuro (2010). Introduction to the History of Japan (registration required).
- Bernhard Tauchnitz.
- Hook, Glenn D. et al. (2011). Japan's International Relations: Politics, Economics and Security excerpt Archived 1 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- Imamura, Keiji (1996). Prehistoric Japan: New Perspectives on Insular East Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
- ISBN 978-0-231-11435-6.
- Kingston, Jeffrey (2001). Japan in Transformation, 1952–2000. Pearson Education. 215pp; brief history textbook.
- Kitaoka, Shin’ichi (2019). The Political History of Modern Japan: Foreign Relations and Domestic Politics. Routledge.
- McOmie, William, ed. Foreign Images and Experiences of Japan: 1: First Century AD-1841. (Brill, 2021). online
- Schirokauer, Conrad (2013). A Brief History of Chinese and Japanese Civilizations. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
- Tames, Richard, et al. (2008). A Traveller's History of Japan. Popular history.
External links
- Media related to History of Japan at Wikimedia Commons
- Pre-modern Japan travel guide from Wikivoyage