Architecture of Finland
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The architecture of Finland has a history spanning over 800 years,[1] and while up until the modern era the architecture was highly influenced by Sweden, there were also influences from Germany and Russia.[2] From the early 19th century onwards influences came directly from further afield: first when itinerant foreign architects took up positions in the country and then when the Finnish architect profession became established.
Furthermore, Finnish architecture in turn has contributed significantly to several styles internationally, such as Jugendstil (or Art Nouveau), Nordic Classicism and Functionalism. In particular, the works of the country's most noted early modernist architect Eliel Saarinen have had significant worldwide influence. Even more renowned than Saarinen has been modernist architect Alvar Aalto, who is regarded as one of the major figures in the world history of modern architecture.[3] In an article from 1922 titled "Motifs from past ages", Aalto discussed national and international influences in Finland, and as he saw it:
Seeing how people in the past were able to be international and unprejudiced and yet remain true to themselves, we may accept impulses from old Italy, from Spain, and from the new America with open eyes. Our Finnish forefathers are still our masters.[4]
In a 2000 review article of twentieth century Finnish architecture, Frédéric Edelmann, arts critic of the French newspaper Le Monde, suggested that Finland has more great architects of the status of Alvar Aalto in proportion to the population than any other country in the world.[5] Finland's most significant architectural achievements are related to modern architecture, mostly because the current building stock has less than 20% that dates back to before 1955, which relates significantly to the reconstruction following World War II and the process of urbanisation which only gathered pace after the war.[6]
1249 is the date normally given for the beginning of Swedish rule over the land now known as Finland (in Finnish, Suomi), and this rule continued until 1809, after which Finland became a Grand Duchy of Finland, an autonomic state ruled by the Russian Tsars.[7] Finland declared its full independence in 1917, during the Russian Revolution. These historical factors have had a significant impact on the history of architecture in Finland, along with the founding of towns and the building of castles and fortresses (in the numerous wars between Sweden and Russia fought in Finland), as well as the availability of building materials and craftsmanship and, later on, government policy on issues such as housing and public buildings. As an essentially forested region, timber has been the natural building material, while the hardness of the local stone (predominantly granite) initially made it difficult to work, and the manufacture of brick was rare before the mid-19th century.[8] The use of concrete took on a particular prominence with the rise of the welfare state in the 1960s, in particular in state-sanctioned housing with the dominance of prefabricated concrete elements.[9] However, with recent concerns regarding sustainability in building construction there has been a gradual increase in the use of wood, and not merely as a finishing material but also for the main structure.[10]
From early architecture to 1809 (including the Swedish colonial period)
The dominance of wood construction
The vernacular architecture of Finland is generally characterised by the predominant use of wooden construction. The oldest known dwelling structure is the so-called kota, a
The tradition of wood construction - beyond the kota hut - has been common throughout the entire northern boreal coniferous zone since prehistoric times.[12] The central structural factor in its success was the corner joining - or "corner-timbering" - technique, whereby logs are laid horizontally in succession and notched at the ends to form tightly secure joints. The origins of the technique are uncertain; though it was used by the Romans in northern Europe in the first century BC, other possible older sources are said to be areas of present-day Russia, but also it is said to have been common among the Indo-Aryan peoples of Eastern Europe, the Near East, Iran and India.[13] Crucial in the development of the "corner-timbering" technique were the necessary tools, primarily an axe rather than a saw.[14] The resulting building type, a rectangular plan, originally comprising a single interior space and with a low-pitched saddle-back roof, is of the same origin as the megaron, the early Greek dwelling house.[12] Its first use in Finland may have been as a storehouse, and later a sauna and then domestic house. The first examples of the "corner-timbering" technique would have used round logs, but a more developed form soon emerged, shaping logs with an axe to a square shape for a surer fit and better insulation. Hewing with an axe was seen as preferable to sawing because the axe-cut surfaces were better in abating water penetration.
According to historians, though the principles of wooden construction may have arrived in Finland from elsewhere, one particular innovation in wooden construction seems to be unique to Finland, the so-called
In later developments, most particularly in urban contexts, the log frame was then further covered in a layer of wooden planks. It is hypothesised that it was only from the 16th century onwards that wooden houses were painted in the familiar red-ochre or punamulta, containing up to 95% iron oxide, often mixed with tar.[15] The balloon framing technique for timber construction popularized throughout North America only came to Finland in the 20th century. Finnish master builders had travelled to the US to see how the industrialisation of the timber-framing technique had developed and wrote about it positively in trade journals on their return. Some experiments were made in using the wooden frame, but initially it was not popular.[16] One reason was the thin construction's poor climatic performance (improved in the 1930s with the addition of insulation): also significant was the relatively low price of both timber and labour in Finland. However, by the outbreak of the First World War, the industrialised timber construction system had become more widespread. Also a comparatively recent "import" to Finland is the use of wooden shingles for roofs, dating only from the early 19th century. Previous to that, the traditional system had been a so-called birch-bark roof (in Finnish, malkakatto), comprising a wooden slat base, overlaid with several layers of birch-bark and finished off with a layer of long timber poles by weighed down in places by the occasional boulder. Traditionally, the whole structure was unpainted.[17] The coating of shingles with tar was the modern appropriation of a material first produced in the Nordic countries during the Iron Age, a major export product, especially in sealing wooden boats.
The traditional timber house in Finland was generally of two types: i. Eastern Finland, influenced by Russian traditions. For example, in the Pertinotsa house (now in the Seurasaari Open Air Museum in Helsinki) the family's dwelling rooms are on the upper floors while the animal barns and storerooms are on the ground floor, with hay lofts above them; ii. Western Finland, influenced by Swedish traditions. For example, in the Antti farmstead, originally from the village of Säkylä (nowadays also in Seurasaari), the farmstead consisted of a group of individual log buildings placed around a central farmyard. Traditionally, the first building to be constructed in such a farmstead was the sauna, followed by the first or main room ("tupa") of the main house, where the family would cook, eat and sleep. In summertime they would cook outdoors, and some family members would even choose to sleep in the barns.[18]
The development of wood construction to a more refined level occurred, however, in the construction of churches. The earliest examples were not designed by architects but rather by master builders, who also were responsible for their construction. One of the oldest known wooden church is that of Santamala, in Nousiainen (only archaeological remains existing), dating from the 12th century, with a simple rectangular ground plan of 11,5 x 15 metres.[12] The oldest preserved wooden churches in Finland date back to the 17th century (e.g. Sodankylä Old Church, Lapland, 1689); none of the medieval churches are remaining as, like all wooden buildings, they were susceptible to fire. Indeed, only 16 wooden churches from the 17th century still exist - though it was not uncommon to demolish a wooden church to make way for a larger stone one.[8]
The designs of the wooden churches were clearly influenced by the church architecture from central and southern Europe as well as Russia, with cruciform plans and
Even at the time of the building of Petäjävesi church, with its "cross plan", more complex ground plans had already existed in Finland, but in later years the ground plans would become even more complex. The first so-called "double cross plan" in Finland was probably the Ulrika Eleonora church in Hamina (1731, burnt down 1742), built under the direction of master builder Henrik Schultz. It was then replaced by a somewhat similar church, the Church of Elisabet in Hamina (1748–51, destroyed 1821), built under the direction of Arvi Junkkarinen. The double cruciform plan entailed a cross with extensions at the inner corners. This became a model for later churches, for example, Mikkeli church (1754, destroyed 1806) and Lappee church (Juhana Salonen, 1794), the latter incorporating yet a further development, where the transepts of the cross plan are tapered and even chamfered at the corners, as one sees in the plan of the Ruovesi church (1776). Historian Lars Pettersson has suggested that the Katarina Church (1724) in Stockholm, by the French-born architect Jean de la Vallée was the model for the plan of Hamina church and hence the development that followed.[12]
During the Middle Ages there were only 6 towns in Finland (Turku, Porvoo, Naantali, Rauma, Ulvila and Vyborg), with wooden buildings growing organically around a stone church and/or castle. Historian Henrik Lilius has pointed out that Finnish wooden towns were on average destroyed by fire every 30–40 years.[19] They were never rebuilt exactly as they had existed before, and the fire damage offered the opportunity to create new urban structures in accordance with any reigning ideals: for example, completely new grid plans, straightening and widening streets, codes for constructing buildings in stone (in practice often ignored) and the introduction of "fire breaks" in the form of green areas between properties. As a consequence of fires, the greatest part of the wooden towns which have been preserved date from the nineteenth century. For example, the town of Oulu was founded in 1605 by Charles IX beside a medieval castle and, typical for its time, grew organically. In 1651 Claes Claesson drew up a new plan comprising a regular street grid, his proposal outlined on top of the existing "medieval" situation, but still retaining the position of the existing church. Over the following years, there more fires (significantly in 1822 and 1824) and yet more exacting regulations in new town plans regarding wider streets and fire breaks. Of Finland's 6 medieval towns, only Porvoo has retained its medieval town plan.
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Tornio block-pillar church, 1686.
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Sodankylä Old Church, Lapland, c.1689.
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Petäjävesi Old Church, "cross plan", 1765, bell tower 1861.
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Petäjävesi Old Church interior.
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Elisabet Church, Hamina, "double cross plan", 1748–51, destroyed 1821.
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Lappee church, 1799.
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Lappee church, "double cross plan", 1799.
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Cathedral and wooden houses of Old Porvoo.
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Torneå (founded 1620) as depicted in Dahlbergh's Suecia Antiqua et Hodierna, 1716.
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View of Turku Cathedral before the Great Fire of 1827.
The development of stone construction
The use of stone construction in Finland was initially limited to the few medieval castles and churches in the country. The construction of castles was part of a project by the Swedish crown to construct both defensive and administrative centres throughout Finland. Six castles of national importance were built during the medieval period, from the second half of the 13th century onwards: Kastelholm in
The Medieval stone building tradition in Finland is also preserved in 73 stone churches and 9 stone sacristies added to otherwise originally wood churches.[12] Probably the oldest stone church is the Church of St. Olaf in Jomala, Åland, completed in 1260–1280. The stone churches are characterised by their massive walls, and predominantly with a single interior space. Small details, such as windows would sometimes be decorated with redbrick detailing, in particular in the gables (e.g. Sipoo Old Church, 1454).[21] An exception among the churches was Turku Cathedral; it was originally built in wood in the late 13th century, but was considerably expanded in the 14th and 15th centuries, mainly in stone but also using brick. The cathedral was badly damaged during the Great Fire of Turku in 1827, and was rebuilt to a great extent afterwards in brick.
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Turku Castle, 13th century, viewed in 1934.
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Vyborg Castle, 13th century, depicted by Torsten Wilhelm Forstén in 1840.
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Olavinlinna castle dates from 1475.
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Häme Castle featured in Erik Dahlbergh's Suecia Antiqua et Hodierna, 1660-1716.
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Sipoo Old Church (St. Sigfried's Church), 1454.
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St. Olaf's Church, Tyrvää, c. 1516
Already in the mid-16th century there was the odd example of importing refined Renaissance architecture principles to Finland.
The
Helsinki had been founded as a trading town by
The height of Sweden's political expansion was marked by the instigation by the crown of the publication Erik Dahlbergh's
Compared to the rest of Europe, the manor houses of Finland are extremely modest in size and architectural refinement.[25] Strictly speaking, a manor house was a gift from the Swedish king, and enjoyed tax privileges. Later manors, stemmed from military officer houses and mansions from privately owned ironworks.[26] The oldest surviving stone manor houses date from the Vasa period in the 16th century; good examples are the manors of Kankainen (founded 1410s) and Vuorentaka (late 1400s), both near Turku. Also in south-west Finland, Louhisaari manor house, completed in 1655 (unknown architect, though probably designed by its builder-owner Herman Klasson Fleming) is a rare example in Finland of a Palladian-style country house.[27] The construction of manor houses in Finland raises the name of an early foreign architect in Finland; Prussian-born Christian Friedrich Schröder (1722-1789) was by training a mason and who worked in Stockholm before moving to Turku in 1756 and was appointed city architect in 1756 - which included responsibility for training assistants. Among his works in Turku, was the rebuilding of the tower of Turku Cathedral[28] Designing in the Rococo and French classical styles, albeit in a more modest idiom, Schröder designed the manor houses of Lapila (1763), Paddais (mid 1760s), Nuhjala (1764), Ala-Lemu (1767), Teijo (1770) and Fagervik (1773), as well as the Rauma town hall (1776).[29]
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Kankainen Manor, Henrik Klasson Horn (c. 1550), Augustin Ehrensvärd (c.1756), Claes Aminoff (1935).
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Louhisaari manor house, 1655.
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Fredrikshamn (Hamina), fortress-town plan, Axel von Löwen, 1723.
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Castle courtyard, Sveaborg fortress, Helsinki, after Carl Wijnblad, 1747.
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The King's Gate, Sveaborg fortress, Helsinki, Carl Hårleman, 1747.
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Rauma Town Hall, Christian Friedrich Schröder, 1776.
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Oravais church, Jacob Rijf, 1792.
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Hämeenlinna Church, Louis Jean Desprez, 1799.
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Sulkava church, Charles Bassi, 1822.
Grand Duchy period, 1809-1917
Early Grand Duchy period: Neoclassicism and Gothic revival
The cornerstone of Finland as a state was laid in 1809 at the
In fact, even before the ceding of Finland to Russia in 1809, the advent of Neoclassicism in the mid-18th century arrived with French artist-architect Louis Jean Desprez, who was employed by the Swedish state, and who designed Hämeenlinna church in 1799. Charles (Carlo) Bassi was another foreigner, an Italian-born architect also employed by the Swedish state, who worked especially in the design of churches. Bassi immigrated to Finland and became the first formally skilled architect to settle permanently in Finland.[30] In 1810 Bassi was appointed the first head of the National Board of Building (Rakennushallitus - a government post that remained until 1995), based in Turku, a position he held until 1824. Bassi remained in Finland after power over the country was ceded to Russia. In 1824 his official position as head of the National Board of Building was taken by another immigrant architect, German-born Carl Ludvig Engel.[31]
With the move of the Finnish capital from Turku to Helsinki, Engel had been appointed by
In addition to his work in Helsinki, Engel was also appointed "state intendant" with responsibility for the design and supervision of construction of the vast majority of state buildings throughout the country, including tens of church designs, as well as the design and laying out of town plans. Among these works were Helsinki Naval Barracks (1816–38), Helsinki Old Church (1826), Lapua Church (1827), Kärsämäki Church (1828), Pori Town Hall (1831), Hamina Church (1843), Wiurila manor house (1845).[32]
Engel had in his possession a copy of Andrea Palladio's architectural treatise I quattro libri dell'architettura, and Engel scholars have often stressed Engels' indebtedness to Palladian theory. But Engel also kept up correspondence with colleagues from Germany and followed trends there. Engel's relationship with key Prussian architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel, three years his senior and both having studied at the Bauakademie in Berlin, has yet to be properly verified. The influences from central Europe would also take on board a more formulaic process, typified by standardisations of design formulas in post-revolutionary France by Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand, for instance by the use of design grids.[32]
Some of Engel's later works are also characterised by the turn in central Europe to
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C.L. Engel, Helsinki University Library (1845).
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C.L. Engel, Helsinki Naval Barracks, (1816–38).
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Adolf Fredrik Granstedt, Kerimäki Church (1847).
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Harald Julius von Bosse and Carl Johan von Heideken, German Church, Helsinki (1864).
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Edward Dippel, Verla paper mill, Jaala (1893)
The eclectic mixtures of neo-Gothic, neo-Romanesque, neo-Classical and
However, the question of "stylistic revival" in Finland has another important cultural-political aspect, the presence of the
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Karl August Wrede, Turku Main Library, 1903.
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Georg Theodor von Chiewitz, Nya Teatern, Helsinki (1853).
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Georg Theodor von Chiewitz, House of Nobility, Helsinki (1862).
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Konstantin Thon, Suomenlinna Church in 1908 (1854).
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Aleksey Gornostayev, Uspenski Cathedral, Helsinki (1868).
This period also marked the establishment of the first architecture courses in Finland, and in 1879 these began at the
Late Grand Duchy period: Jugend
At the end of the 19th century Finland continued to enjoy greater independence under Russia as a grand duchy; however, this would change with the coming to power of
In 1889 the artist
The Jugendstil style in Finland is characterised by flowing lines and the incorporation of nationalistic-mythyological symbols - especially those taken from the national epic,
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Finnish Pavilion at Paris Expo 1900.
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Pohjola Insurance Building, Helsinki, Gesellius, Lindgren, and Saarinen, 1901.
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Tampere Cathedral, Lars Sonck, 1902-1907.
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National Museum of Finland, Helsinki, Gesellius, Lindgren, and Saarinen, 1916.
Even at the height of the Jugendstil style, there were opponents who criticised the stagnant tastes and mythological approaches whereby Jugendstil was becoming institutionalised. The most well-known opponents were architect-critics Sigurd Frosterus and Gustaf Strengel.[43] Frosterus had worked briefly in the office of Belgian-born architect Henry van de Velde in Weimar in 1903, and at the same time Strengel worked in London at the office of architect Charles Harrison Townsend. Their critique was partly inspired by the results for the 1904 competition to design the Helsinki railway station, won by Eliel Saarinen. In the jury report, the architecture of Frosterus's entry was described as "imported". That same year Frosterus entered the competition for the Vyborg railway station, which Saarinen again won. Frosterus was a strict rationalist who wanted to develop architecture towards scientific ideals, instead of the historical approach of Jugendstil. In Frosterus's own words: "We want an iron and brain style for the railway stations and exhibition buildings; we want an iron and brain style for stores, theatres and concert halls."[44] According to him, an architect had to analyse his tasks of construction in order to be able to logically justify his solutions, and he must take advantage of the possibilities of the latest technology. The particular challenge of his time was reinforced concrete. Frosterus considered that the buildings of a modern metropolis should be "constructivist" in expressing their purpose and technology honestly. He designed a number of private residences, but made his major breakthrough in 1916, gaining second prize in the competition for the Stockmann department store in the heart of Helsinki. He was eventually commissioned to realise the building, which was completed after Finland gained independence, in 1930. It would be misleading to see the Jugendstil style as wholly opposed to classicism; Frosterus's own works combined elements of both. Another key example is the Kalevakangas Cemetery Chapel in Tampere, designed by Wäinö Palmqvist and Einar Sjöström; they had won an architectural competition for the project in 1911, and it was completed in 1913. While containing many of the decorative elements familiar from Jugendstil, the overall form borrows from a key classical model, the Pantheon in Rome.
Another point of debate at that time was that of the merits of urbanism. Again, of importance here were opposing views from abroad, namely the picturesque theories of town planning proposed by Viennese city planner Camillo Sitte, as put forward in his influential book City Planning According to Artistic Principles (1889) and the opposing classical-rational urbanism point of view also proposed in Vienna by Otto Wagner, heavily influenced by the Parisian model - under the directorship of Baron Haussmann from 1858 to 1870 - of driving wide boulevards through the old labyrinthine city with the intent of modernising traffic and waste management, as well as enabling the greater social control of the population. This debate came to a head in Finland in the first ever town planning design competition in 1898-1900 for the Töölö district of Helsinki. Three entries were lifted out for recognition; first prize to Gustaf Nyström (together with engineer Herman Norrmén), second prize to Lars Sonck, and third prize to a joint entry by Sonck, Bertil Jung and Valter Thomé. Nyström's scheme represented classicism with wide main streets and imposing public buildings arranged in symmetrical axial compositions, and the other two in the Sittesque style, with the street network adapted to the rocky terrain and with picturesque compositions. A fantastic sketch accompanying Sonck's competition entry gives an indication of the imagery he was aiming for, inspired by his travels in Germany. Historian Pekka Korvenmaa makes the point that leading theme was the creation of the atmosphere of medieval urban environments - and Sonck later designed a similar proposal in 1904 to rearrange the immediate surroundings of St.Michael's Church in Helsinki, with numerous "fantastic" spired buildings.[45] In the Töölö competition, undecided what course of action to take, however, the City Council asked the prize-winners to submit new proposals. When this led to further stalemate Nyström and Sonck were commissioned to work together on the final plan combining Nyström's spacious street network and elements of Sonck's Sittesque details. The final plan (1916) under the direction of Jung, made the scheme more uniform, while the architecture is seen as typical of the Nordic Classicism style. A typical street in the plan is that of Museokatu, with tall lines of buildings in a classical style along a curving street line. A still wider (24 metres) new tree-lined boulevard was that of Helsinginkatu, driven through the working-class district of Kallio, first outlined in 1887 by Sonck, but with further input from Nyström, and completed in around 1923.[46]
But even more ambitious than the town plan for Töölö were Eliel Saarinen's two plans also for Helsinki, the Munkkiniemi-Haaga plan of 1910-15 and the Pro-Helsingfors plan of 1918.[47] The former was for a city development of 170 000, which equalled the entire population of central Helsinki at that time. The scheme was equally inspired by the Parisian axiality of Haussman, the intimate residential squares of Raymond Unwin in the English garden cities and the large-scale apartment blocks of Otto Wagner in Vienna. Only small fragments of the scheme were ever completed. The later scheme, which originated from private land speculation rather than public planning, involved the expansion of central Helsinki - which even included filling in the Töölö Bay in the centre of the city - as well as the planning of smaller satellite communities - what Saarinen termed 'organic decentralization', again inspired by the British garden city principle - around the edge of the city. No aspects of the latter scheme were ever realised.
A major architectural-historical event was the emigration of Eliel Saarinen to the United States in 1923, after he received second prize in the Chicago Tribune Tower competition of 1922. On moving to the United States, Saarinen designed the campus for the Cranbrook Academy of Art (1928) in his same architectural style, while architects in Finland moved on much more quickly into modernism.
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Vyborg railway station competition entry, Sigurd Frosterus, 1904.
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Stockmann department store, Helsinki, Sigurd Frosterus, 1916-30.
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Kalevakangas Cemetery Chapel, Tampere, Wäinö Palmqvist and Einar Sjöström, 1913.
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Lars Sonck, 1920s-30s urbanism, Museokatu, Töölö, Helsinki.
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Oiva Kallio, Helsinki town plan, 1920s.
Post-independence, 1917-
Nordic classicism and international Functionalism
With Finland's independence achieved in 1917, there was a turn away from the Jugendstil style, which became associated with bourgeois culture, as well as the heavier Neo-Renaissance style. In turn there was a brief return to a lighter classicism, so-called
But beyond these public buildings designed in the Nordic Classicism style, this same style was also used in timber constructed workers' housing, most famously in the Puu-Käpylä ("Wooden Käpylä") district of Helsinki (1920–1925) by Martti Välikangas. The around 165 houses of Puu-Käpylä, modelled on farmhouses, were built from traditional square log construction clad in vertical boarding, but the construction technique was rationalised with an on-site "factory" with a partly building element technique. The principle of standardization for housing generally would take off during this time. In 1922 the National Board of Social Welfare (Sosiaalihallitus) commissioned architect Elias Paalanen to design different options of farmhouses, which were then published as a brochure, Pienasuntojen tyyppipiirustuksia (Standard drawings for small houses) republished several times. In 1934 Paalanen was commissioned to design an equivalent urban type-house, and he came up with twelve different options. Alvar Aalto, too, became involved, from 1936, in standard small houses, designing for the Ahlström timber and wood product company, with three types of the so-called AA system: 40 m2 (Type A), 50 m2 (Type B) and 60 m2 (Type C). Though based on traditional farmhouses, there are also clear stylistic elements from Nordic Classicism but also modernism. However, it was with the repercussions of the Second World War that the standard system for house design took on even greater potency, with the advent of the so-called Rintamamiestalo house (literally: War-front soldier's house).[48] These were built throughout the country; a particularly well-preserved example is the district of Karjasilta in Oulu. But this same house type also took on a different role in the aftermath of World War II as part of the Finnish war reparations to the Soviet Union; among the "goods" delivered from Finland to the Soviet Union were over 500 wooden houses based on the standard Rintamamiestalo house, deliveries taking place between 1944 and 1948. A number of these houses ended up being exported from the Soviet Union to various places in Poland, where small "Finnish villages" were established; for example, the district of Szombierki in Bytom, as well as in Katowice and Sosnowiec.[49]
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Puu-Käpylä workers' housing area Helsinki, 1920–1925.
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Workers' Club, Jyväskylä, Alvar and Aino Aalto, 1925.
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Taidehalli Art Gallery, Hilding Ekelund and Jarl Eklund, 1928.
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Töölö Church, Helsinki, Hilding Ekelund, 1930.
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Liittopankki bank building, Helsinki, Pauli E. Blomstedt, 1929.
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Finnish Parliament building, J.S. Sirén, 1931.
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Rintamamiestalo (war veteran) houses, Karjasilta, Oulu, in 1950.
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"Finnish houses" in Sosnowiec, Poland, late 1940s.
Apart from housing design, the period of Nordic Classicism is regarded as being fairly brief, surpassed by the more "continental" style – especially in banks and other office buildings – typified by Frosterus and Pauli E. Blomstedt (e.g. Liittopankki bank building, Helsinki, 1929). In reality, however, a synthesis of elements from various styles emerged. Nevertheless, but by the late 1920s and early 1930s there was already a significant move towards Functionalism, inspired most significantly by French-Swiss architect Le Corbusier, but also from examples closer to hand, again Sweden, such as the Stockholm Exhibition (1930) by Asplund and Sigurd Lewerentz. However, at the time, there were certainly architects who attempted to articulate their dissatisfaction with static styles, just as Sigurd Frosterus and Gustaf Strengel had criticised the National Romanticism. Pauli E. Blomstedt, who had certainly designed significant buildings in the Nordic Classicism style, then became a vehement critic, writing sarcastically in a 1928 essay "Architectural Anemia" about Nordic Classicism's sense of "good taste", at a time when he had already endorsed the white Functionalism:
There will soon be no difference between an architect and a fashionable tailor. Dress designers travel each spring to Parisian fashion houses, and we architects will make a trip to Stockholm or Gothenburg every now and then and find there the latest novelties of the season, that is, if they have not already been published in our 'Revue des Modes', Byggmästaren journal or Architekten journal. Window frames, ready-made colonnades and bitter-sweet colours, even complete interiors can find their way to Finland. But we have developed during the last few years, and the facades and the ciytscapes are made so harmonious! That's what many say. ...let us add some circles – called medallions – between the windows on some floors, and to demonstrate sensitive artistry, we find a delicate dangling clothesline of a garland, or a flattened-out meander, or even a gilt star, which is an extremely 'elegant' solution.[50]
Blomstedt himself died prematurely in 1935, aged 35. The significant vehicle for the development of modernism in Finland was his contemporary, Alvar Aalto, who was a friend of Asplund as well as key Swedish architect
Another key Finnish modernist architect from that period, who had also gone through Nordic Classicism, and who was briefly in partnership with Aalto – working together on the design of the Turku Fair of 1929 – was Erik Bryggman, chief among his own works being Resurrection Chapel (1941) in Turku. However, for Giedion the importance of Aalto led in his move away from high modernism, towards an organic architecture – and as Giedion saw it, the impulse for this lay in the natural formations of Finland. Though these "organic elements" were said to be visible already in these first projects, they became more apparent in Aalto's masterpiece house design, Villa Mairea (1937–1939), in Noormarkku – designed for industrialist Harry Gullichsen and his industrialist-heiress wife Maire Gullichsen – the design for which it is felt took inspiration from Frank Lloyd Wright's Fallingwater (1936–1939), in Pennsylvania, USA. Though even when designing a luxury villa, Aalto argued that he felt Villa Mairea would provide research for building standardisation for social housing.[53]
The shift or transition from
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Viipuri Library, Alvar Aalto, 1927–1935.
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Paimio Sanatorium, Alvar Aalto, 1932.
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Paimio Sanatorium, patient room ceiling lamp, Alvar Aalto.
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Alvar Aalto, Villa Mairea, Noormarkku, 1938–1939.
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Resurrection Chapel, Turku, Erik Bryggman, 1941.
Regional Functionalism
A major event that enabled Finland to display its modernist architecture credentials was the
Following World War II, Finland ceded 11% of its territory and 30% of its economic assets to the Soviet Union as part of the Moscow Peace Treaty of 1940. Also 12% of Finland's population, including some 422,000 Karelians, were evacuated. The state response to this has become known as the period of reconstruction. Reconstruction started in the rural areas because still at that time two-thirds of the population lived there.[58] But reconstruction involved not only the repair of war damage (e.g., the destruction of the city of Rovaniemi by the retreating German army) but also the beginnings of greater urbanisation, programmes for standardised housing, building programmes for schools, hospitals, universities and other public service buildings, as well as the construction of new industries and power stations.[59] For instance, architect Aarne Ervi was responsible for the design of five power stations along the Oulujoki river in the decade after the war, and Alvar Aalto designed several industrial complexes following the war, though in fact he had been heavily involved in designing projects of various sizes for Finnish industrial enterprises already since the 1930s.[60] However, for all the expansion of public works, the decade following the war was marred by shortages in building materials, except for wood. The Finnish Lutheran Church also became a key figure in architecture in the interim and post-war period by arranging with the Finnish Association of Architects (SAFA) architectural competitions for the design of new churches and cemeteries/cemetery chapels throughout the country, and significant war-time and post-war examples include: Turku Resurrection Chapel (Erik Bryggman, 1941), Lahti Church (Alvar Aalto, 1950), Vuoksenniska Church (Alvar Aalto, 1952–1957), Vatiala Cemetery Chapel, Tampere (Viljo Rewell, 1960), Hyvinkää Church (Aarno Ruusuvuori, 1960), and Holy Cross Chapel, Turku (Pekka Pitkänen, 1967). Bryggman in particular designed several cemetery chapels but also was the most prolific designer of war graves, designed in conjunction with artists.
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Hotel Pohjanhovi, Rovaniemi, Pauli E. Blomstedt, 1936 (destroyed 1944).
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Tilkka military hospital, Helsinki, Olavi Sortta, 1936.
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Helsinki Olympic Stadium, Lindegren and Jäntti, 1938–1950.
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SOK offices and warehouse, Oulu, Erkki Huttunen, 1938.
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Pyhakoski Power Station, Aarne Ervi, 1942–1951.
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High rise blocks, Tapiola, Viljo Revell, 1953.
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Otaniemi Chapel, Espoo, Kaija Siren (with Heikki Siren), 1954–1957.
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"Serpentine House" housing block, Helsinki, Yrjö Lindegren, 1949–1951.
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Roihuvuori housing area, Helsinki, Hilding Ekelund, 1957.
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Finnish Church, London, Cyril Mardall-Sjöström, 1958.
The 1950s also marked the beginning not only of greater population migration to the cities but also state financed projects for social housing. A key early example is the so-called "
There was also at this time more disposable income; one outlet for this was the growth in the number of leisure homes – previously the preserve of the very wealthy – preferably placed alone on one of the numerous isolated lakesides or the coastal waterfront. An essential part of the leisure home (occupied for summer holidays and intermittently during the spring and autumn, but close up for the winter) has been the sauna, usually as a separate building. Indeed, the sauna had traditionally been a rural phenomenon, and its popularity in modern homes was a consequence of its growth as a leisure-time activity rather than as a washing facility. The Finnish Association of Architects (SAFA) and commercial companies organised design competitions for standardised models of leisure homes and saunas, preferably built in wood. Architects could also use the summer house type and sauna as an opportunity to experiment, an opportunity that many architects still use today. In terms of size and opulence, Aalto's own summer house, the so-called Experimental House, in Muuratsalo (1952–1953) fell between the traditions of middle-class splendor and modest rusticity, while its accompanying lakeside sauna, built from round logs, was a modern application of rustic construction.[66] The 1960s witnessed more experimental summer house types, designed with the objective of serial production. The most noted of these was Matti Suuronen's Futuro House (1968) and Venturo House (1971), of which several were made and sold worldwide. Their success was short-lived, however, as production was hit by the 1970s energy crisis.[11]
The late 1950s and 1960s also witnessed a reaction to the then still dominant position of Alvar Aalto in Finnish architecture, though some, most significantly Heikki and Kaija Siren (e.g., Otaniemi Chapel, 1956–1957), Keijo Petäjä (e.g., Lauttasaari Church, Helsinki, 1958), Viljo Revell (e.g., Toronto City Hall, Canada, 1958–1965), Timo Penttilä (e.g., Helsinki City Theatre, 1967), Marjatta and Martti Jaatinen (e.g., Kannelmäki church, 1962–68), and brothers Timo and Tuomo Suomalainen (e.g., Temppeliaukio Church, Helsinki, 1961–1969) developed their own interpretation of a non-rationalist modernist architecture. Taking architecture in an even more idiosyncratic organic line than Aalto was Reima Pietilä, while at the other end of the spectrum was a rationalist line epitomized in the works of Aarne Ervi, Aulis Blomstedt, Aarno Ruusuvuori, Kirmo Mikkola, Kristian Gullichsen, Matti K. Mäkinen, Pekka Salminen, Juhani Pallasmaa and, slightly later, Helin & Siitonen Architects.
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Extension to Adult Education Centre, Helsinki (Taucher, 1927) (1959), Aulis Blomstedt
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Holy Cross Chapel, Turku (1967), Pekka Pitkänen.
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Helsinki City Theatre (1967), Timo Penttilä.
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Tapiola church, Espoo (1965), Aarno Ruusuvuori.
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Weilin & Göös Print Works, Espoo (1964–1966), Aarno Ruusuvuori.
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Dipoli student building, Espoo (1961–1966), Reima and Raili Pietilä.
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'Metso' Tampere City Library (1978–1986), Reima and Raili Pietilä.
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Järvenpää Church (1968), Erkki Elomaa.
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Kortepohja prefabricated housing (1964–1969), Bengt Lundsten and Esko Kahri.
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STS Bank, Tampere (1973), Kosti Kuronen.
Aulis Blomstedt was the key figure here, as one of the founding figures of the
Reima Pietilä had also been active in the activities of the Museum of Finnish Architecture as well as publishing theoretical articles in Le Carré Bleu and Arkkitehti. Pietilä even attended a meeting of the
A more direct connection between Aalto and the somewhat opposing trend of Structuralism can be seen in the work of Arto Sipinen; he had been an employee of Aalto at the time when the latter was directing the construction of the Seminaarinmäki campus for the University of Jyväskylä (1951–1969). Aalto had resigned from planning of the area in 1969 following disagreements with the clients and consequently a competition was held in 1969–70 for the further planning of the campus, including a new main library. The competition was won by Sipinen. But in contrast to Aalto's vaguely organic or, as he himself termed, an "Athenian acropolis layout" (i.e., individual non-rectangular-shaped buildings set within a park landscape and with long vistas into the distance), Sipinen's scheme involved a Structuralist-inspired layout, part strict rational grid, with distinct rectangular-shaped buildings, and part urban "Kasbah", as he himself termed it, with alleyways and courtyards, albeit continuing the use of redbrick which Aalto had also followed from the existing buildings on the site dating from the 19th century.[72] During the following decades, Sipinen would continue the same Structuralist form language in the design of the Espoo Cultural Centre (1989), as well as in the University of Jyväskylä's other campuses at Mattilanniemi and Ylistönrinne, though building the entire new campuses in "white".[73]
Both Aalto's and Sipinen's work on the planning of the University of Jyväskylä campus, and so too Aalto's planning of the Helsinki University of Technology campus in Otaniemi, should also be seen within the context of the Finnish state's desire after the war to expand further education throughout the country, with the foundation of several new universities with purpose-built campuses. Another former Aalto employee, Jaakko Kontio (together with Kalle Räike), designed the campus of the
If the minimalism of the "rationalist school" could be equally inspired by the works of the modernist masters
The ideas of Mies van der Rohe have had a different interpretation in the buildings of Juha Leiviskä, equally inspired by De Stijl in regard to the unbounded continuity of space as represented by series of parallel walls, but also ideas about the ethereal qualities of natural light from German Baroque churches (e.g., the churches designed by the Asam brothers) as well as lamps in Turkish churches and mosques, including Hagia Sophia; indeed, Leiviskä made his reputation with competition success in the design of churches; e.g., St.Thomas's Church and Parish Centre, Oulu (1975), Myyrmäki Church, Vantaa (1984), Kirkkonummi Parish Centre, Kirkkonummi (1984), Männistö Church, Kuopio (1992), and Pakila Church, Helsinki (2002). Thus, for instance, in the case of the Myyrmäki church, it is evident already on the exterior that the interior space of the relatively long building is generally comprised from the spaces left between a series of "free-standing" solid walls; that is, there are no rectangular-shaped spaces.[75]
Postmodernism, Critical Regionalism, Deconstruction, Minimalism, Parametricism
Since the late 1970s Finland has been more open to direct international influences. The continuity from the earlier Functionalism, however, has been evident in a prevailing Minimalism, seen, for example, in the works of
However, the greatest influence from postmodernism in Finland came through urban planning. This was part of an originally southern and central European trend from the late 1970s onwards that reassessed the European city which had been decimated by war but also modernist planning principles. Key architect-theorists in this viewpoint were, the
The aims at a new understanding of regionalism yet in a modern idiom materialised in the greater use of timber – the building material most associated historically with Finnish architecture. However, there lies a dichotomy in its use: between its inherent positive values and its use as symbolising nostalgia, not to mention exploiting its industrial potential by the pervading timber industry.
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Oulunsalo Town Hall (1982) Arkkitehtitoimisto NVV.
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Otavamedia (publishers) offices, Länsi-Pasila, Helsinki (1986), Ilmo Valjakka.
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Heureka Science Centre(1985–1989), Heikkinen-Kommonen Architects.
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University of Vaasa (1994), Simo and Käpy Paavilainen.
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Nokia HQ, Espoo (1983–1997), Helin and Siitonen Architects.
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Seafront regeneration: High Tech Centre, Ruoholahti, Helsinki (2001), Kai Wartiainen.
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Sibelius Hall, Lahti (2000), Hannu Tikka and Kimmo Lintula (APRT Architects).
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Kärsämäki Shingle Church (1999–2004), Anssi Lassila.
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Kilden Performing Arts Centre, Kristiansand, Norway (2012), ALA Architects.
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Helsinki Central Library Oodi, Helsinki (2018), ALA Architects
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Museum of the History of Polish Jews, Warsaw (2013), Lahdelma & Mahlamäki.
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Kaisa House, University of Helsinki Library (2012), Anttinen Oiva Architects
If Deconstructivism can be said to have had an influence on Finnish architecture in the 1990s and 2000s, it was mainly through the global influence of Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas; an architecture typified by playful formal disjunctions of forms and the use of the "generic", an anti-architecture with aesthetic value.[83] Prime examples of this have been the work of Kai Wartiainen (e.g., High Tech Centre, Ruoholahti, Helsinki, 2001) and ARK-House Architects (e.g., Helsinki City College of Technology, Audio Visual School, 2001). Examples of more biomorphic works, if not always using parametric design principles, are seen in the work of Jyrki Tasa of Arkkitehdit NRT (e.g., Moby Dick House, Espoo, 2008; Into House, Espoo, 1998),[84] and Anttinen Oiva Architects (Kaisa House, University of Helsinki Library, 2012).[85] The whimsy and populism of postmodernism and its concern for playing with architecture as a form of language took a few Finnish architects into the realm of conceptual art or theoretical or "paper" architecture: for example, the works of Casagrande & Rintala were more often installations for art or architecture Biennales. Their work "Land(e)scape" (1999) involved raising old and abandoned log barns onto 10-metre high stilts – a comment on the exodus of the rural population from the Finnish rural areas – the "artwork" culminating with setting the barns on fire.[86]
Neo- and generic urbanism and green building
Late 20th century and early 21st century Finland has witnessed greater consolidation of the greater capital region, Helsinki-Espoo-Vantaa. Helsinki, unable to expand outwards due to being hemmed in to the coastline by the neighbouring cities (formerly rural counties) of Espoo and Vantaa, has adopted planning policies of increased urban densification, also argued for under a policy of sustainable development and "green building", but also de-industrialisation, that is, moving industrial concerns away from the shorelines in proximity to the city centre, which are then redeveloped for generally up-market housing. A good example is the shoreline-facing housing development on Katajanokka, Helsinki, by Nurmela-Raimoranta-Tasa architects (2006).[87] Significant earlier planning policies that effected urban growth were the construction of three ring roads as well as the construction of a Helsinki Metro system, begun in 1982, which in turn had been reactions to a 1968 plan by the American-Finnish firm Smith-Polivinen to drive wide freeways through the centre of Helsinki.[88] The Metro already extends into Eastern Helsinki, and is due (2014–15) to extend into Espoo, with new growth nodes being planned around the new stations. This already occurred within the boundaries of Helsinki in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the prime example being the construction of the Itäkeskus (east centre), with the metro station integrated into a shopping centre and adjacent library and swimming hall, the most significant architectural work of the ensemble being the main shopping mall and 82-metre-tall tower (1987) by Erkki Kairamo (Gullichsen Kairamo Vormala Architects), an architect much influenced by 1920s and 30s Russian Constructivist architecture.[40]
The former industrial, dockyard and shipbuilding areas of Helsinki are being replaced by new housing areas, designed mostly in a minimalist-functionalist style as well as new support services such as kindergartens and schools (which, for the sake of efficiency, are also intended for use as neighbourhood communal facilities; e.g. Opinmäki School and multipurpose centre [2016] by Esa Ruskeepää), as well allowing for large-scale shopping malls (e.g. the new districts of Ruoholahti, Arabianranta, Vuosaari, Hernesaari, Hanasaari, Jätkäsaari and Kalasatama), projects often driven forward by architecture and urban planning competitions. Another major landmark in urban planning and architecture was the creation, on the basis of a 1995 architectural competition, of the eco-district of Viikki (plan by Petri Laaksonen), adjacent to a new campus for the University of Helsinki.[89] Other major cities, in particular Lahti, Tampere, Oulu and Turku are adopting similar strategies as the Greater Helsinki region, while also developing more efficient rail and road systems within these networks, while also promoting extensive bicycle path networks.
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Katajanokanranta housing, Katajanokka, Helsinki, Nurmela-Raimoranta-Tasa architects (2006)
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Itäkeskus (East Centre), Helsinki, Erkki Kairamo (1987).
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Viikki Eco Village, Helsinki, master plan by Petri Laaksonen (1995-2000).
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Kalasatama district, Helsinki, under construction in 2020.
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Saunalahti school and community services, Espoo, Verstas Architects (2012).
Architecture competitions
Of central importance in the development of architecture in Finland for over 100 years has been the development of
World Expo pavilion competitions
The individual national pavilions at the
Influences abroad
Finnish architects, primarily Alvar Aalto, have had a significant influence outside Finland. In a jointly penned article in 1965, renowned American architecture historians Henry-Russell Hitchcock and G. E. Kidder Smith summed up the influence of Finnish architects on the US as follows: "Considering that the population of Finland is roughly half that of greater New York, the extent and the degree to which Finnish architecture has impinged upon the outside world - particularly upon the United States - in the last 40 years is quite extraordinary."[92]
More recently, distinguished Portuguese architect
In more recent times, of equal significance worldwide as actual buildings designed by Finnish architects has been the architectural theory - and prolific amount of writing published in several different languages - by Finnish architect and theorist Juhani Pallasmaa,[101] with such books as The Eyes of the Skin – Architecture and the Senses (2012), Understanding Architecture (2012) and The Thinking Hand (2009),[102] and Finnish architecture theorist Kari Jormakka,[103] with such books as Eyes That Do Not See (2012), Heimlich Manoevres - Ritual in Architecture (1995) and Basic Design Methods (2007).[104]
Foreign architects in Finland
The first prominent architects in Finland came from abroad, most notably Carlo Bassi from Italy and Carl Ludvig Engel from Prussia in the 19th century, designing in the neoclassical style. But since then there have been relatively few "foreign" architects working in Finland or even of cases of individual buildings designed by foreign architects. Also having a major influence in the mid-to-late 19th century was the Swedish-born Georg Theodor Chiewitz, who designed in both the Neo-Renaissance and Neo-Gothic styles. There are known early cases of the Finnish state inviting foreign architects to offer their expertise on a technical planning issue, as with the invitation to the German hospital architects Carl Schleicher and Schüll Düren in the 1910s to make a proposal for the Women's Clinic in Helsinki, their project designed very much in the classical style of the time.[105]
Beginning already in the late 1920s, tens of foreign architects were enticed to seek work in the office of
With foreign architects being allowed to enter Finnish architecture competitions, a significant number have been won by architects from different countries. American architect Steven Holl became the first foreign architect to win the commission for a major public building in Finland, following a competition, with the design of the Kiasma Museum of Contemporary Art (1993-1998) in Helsinki. The Swedish architect Erika Wörman of Djurgårdsstaden Arkitekter won the 1988 competition for the design of the extensive Kartanonkoski housing area in Vantaa, with a colourful postmodernist design that was radically different from Finnish housing schemes of the time. The Gösta Serlachius Museum (2014) in Mänttä was designed by the Barcelona architects studio MX_SI. The competition for the Helsinki Guggenheim Museum (2015) was won by French-Japanese architect partnership Moreau Kusunoki Architectes. The Danish architects Schauman Nordgren Architects won three major architecture-town planning competitions within a three-month period in 2016-17 for sites in Pargas, Tampere, and Jyväskylä.[107]
Direct commissions from foreigners are rare, especially of so-called star architects; the British-Swedish architect Ralph Erskine designed a significant public housing area in Malminkartano in 1978–81, though only mimicking the user-participation method he had used elsewhere. The American architect Daniel Libeskind was commissioned to design the Tampere Central Deck and Arena (2011–). There have also been notable architect partnerships between Finns and foreigners, most notably the UK-based Finn Cyril Mardall of Yorke Rosenberg Mardall, better known as YRM. More recent notable partnerships are Finnish architect Niklas Sandås with Austrian architect Claudia Auer (e.g. Tuomarila daycare centre, Espoo, 2008), Finnish architect Hennu Kjisik with British architect Trevor Harris (e.g. Jyväskylä travel centre, 2004), and Finnish architect Tiina Parkkinen with Austrian architect Alfred Berger (e.g. Nordic embassy compound, Berlin, 1999).
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Kiasma Museum of Contemporary Art, Helsinki, by American architect Steven Holl (1998)
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Gösta Serlachius Museum, Mänttä, by Barcelona architects studio MX_SI (2014)
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Nordic Embassy compound, Berlin, by Finnish-Austrian architects Architekten Berger + Parkkinen (1999)
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Jyväskylä travel centre by Finnish-British architecture partnership Harris - Kjisik Architects (2004)
See also
- Culture of Finland
- Art of Finland
- List of Finnish architects
- List of World Heritage Sites in Finland
- List of medieval stone churches in Finland
References
- ISBN 0-7153-7512-1
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- ^ a b c Harri Hautajärvi, "Suuntana Lappi", Sankaruus ja Arki - Suomen 50-luvun miljöö. Suomen rakennustaiteen Museo, Helsinki, 1994.
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- ^ In fact the architectural firm Usko Nyström-Petrelius-Penttilä was actively pro-Finnish language at a time when the vast majority of architects were Swedish-speaking. Moreover, some of the architectural firm’s customers were also connected with the Fennoman movement, in particular the KOP Bank (Kansallis-Osake-Pankki) which commissioned them to design their bank buildings in Oulu and Viipuri, among other towns. Eija Rauske, Kivet puhuvat - Arkkitehtuuritoimiston Usko Nyström-Petrelius-Penttilä asuinkerrostalot Helsingissä 1895-1908, Helsinki: Suomen muinaismuistoyhdistys, 2004.
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- ^ Reima Pietilä, "Morphology of Expressive Space", Le Carre Bleu, n. 1, 1958.
- ^ Raili and Reima Pietilä, Challenging Modern Architecture, Museum of Finnish Architecture, Helsinki, 2009.
- ^ Mia Hipeli (ed.), Alvar Aalto Architect. 16: Jyväskylä University 1951–71. Alvar Aalto Society, Jyväskylä, 2009.
- ^ Pekka Suhonen, Arto Sipinen: Arkkitehti / Architect, Studio Aartomaa, Lahti, 2001.
- ^ Aarno Ruusuvuori, Structure is the Key to Beauty. Museum of Finnish Architecture, Helsinki, 1992. Kirsi Leiman (ed.), Concrete spaces: Architect Aarno Ruusuvuori’s works from the 1960s. Museum of Finnish Architecture, Helsinki, 2000.
- ^ Malcolm Quantrill, Juha Leiviska and the Continuity of Finnish Modern Architecture, Chichester: Wiley-Academy, 2001.
- ^ Anni Vartola, Kuritonta monimuotoisuutta – Postmodernismi suomalaisessa arkkitehtuurikeskustelussa, Aalto University, 2014. [1].
- ^ Anni Vartola, The Aalto Card in the Conflict between Postmodernism and the Modernist Tradition in Finland, Alvar Aalto Museum, 2012.[2]
- ^ Rob Krier, Stadtraum in Theorie und Praxis, Karl Krämer, Stuttgart, 1975. Translated into English, French, Italian, Spanish. English translation: Urban Space, Academy Editions, London, 1979.
- ^ Marja-Riitta Norri et al. (eds.), Talking about the City. Current Plans for the Centre of Helsinki, MFA, Helsinki, 2001.
- ^ Kankaanpää Public Office Centre, Finnish Architectural Review, 2/3, 1994.
- ^ In this regard, the Finnish Forest Foundation (representing the Finnish timber industry) established the Wood in Culture Association, which in 1999 established a new international architectural award, the "Spirit of Nature Wood Architecture Award", awarded every second year. In the words of the Association: "The Award is granted for architectural excellence to a person or group of persons whose work exemplifies a progressive and creative use of timber." As well as a monetary award and medal, the winning architects have also been invited to design and build a small project in the city of Lahti, where the prize-giving ceremony takes place. "Puu kulttuurissa ry :: Wood in Culture". Archived from the original on 2014-01-20. Retrieved 2014-04-21.
- ^ Alvar Aalto, "Wood as a building material", in G. Schildt (ed.), Alvar Alto – Sketches, MIT Press, Cambridge (Mass.), 1978, p. 142. Published originally in Arkkitehti, 1956.
- ^ Rem Koolhaas's Defense of Generic Architecture
- ^ "Jyrki Tasa, "Into House", Espoo, Puu, 1/1998" (PDF).
- ^ "Helsinki University Main Library Kaisa". www.helsinki.fi.
- ^ "Burning Passion – Finnish architectural design by Marco Casagrade and Sami Rintala", Architectural Review, London, December 1999.
- ^ "Urbanism, new centres", ARK, 6 / 2013.
- ^ "Smith-Polvisen liikennesuunnitelma". www.kaupunkiliikenne.net.
- ^ "Eco-Viikki - Aims, Implementations,Results, City of Helsinki, 2005" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 19, 2012.
- ^ Pertti Solla, "Architectural Competitions in Finland", in Pekka Korvenmaa (ed) The Work of Architects, Finnish Building Centre, Helsinki, 1992.
- ^ Peter B. McKeith and Kerstin Smeds, The Finland Pavilions - Finland at the Universal Expositions 1900-1992, Kustannus Oy City, Tampere 1993.
- ^ Henry-Russell Hitchcock and G. E. Kidder Smith, "Aalto versus Aalto: The Other Finland", Perspecta, Vol. 9/10 (1965), pp. 131-166.
- ^ Alvaro Siza, Interview with Marja-Riitta Norri, 'Architecture and Cultural Values', 4th International Alvar Aalto Symposium, 1988, p.12.
- ^ Ray, Nicholas (May 16, 2007). "Obituary: Sir Colin St John Wilson". The Guardian.
- ^ "East Hampton Architect Richard Meier Marks 50 Years in Business". Archived from the original on 2014-02-02. Retrieved 2014-01-19.
- ^ Venturi states: "Aalto is the Modernist I connect with the most". 'An interview with Robert Venturi', American Art of the 1960s, Vol.I, edited by John Elderfield, New York, 1991, p.158.
- ^ Gareth Griffiths, 'Steven Holl and His Critics', Ptah, Helsinki, 2006.
- ^ "Frontpage - Finland abroad". United States of America.
- ^ Mark Osbaldeston, Unbuilt Toronto: A History of the City That Might Have Been. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2008, p. 94.
- ^ "Cyril Leonard Mardall Sjöström, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004".
- ^ "Andrew Caruso, Interview with an Architectural Icon: Juhani Pallasmaa. National Building Museum, Washington D.C."
- ^ Juhani Pallasmaa, The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses, John Wiley, 2012; Understanding Architecture, Phaidon, 2012; The Thinking Hand, John Wiley, 2009.
- ^ Ramchurn, Rakesh (January 29, 2013). "Obituary: Kari Jormakka (1959-2013)".
- ^ Kari Jormakka, Eyes That Do Not See, Bauhaus Verlag, 2012; Basic Design Methods, Birkhauser, 2008; Heimlich Manoevres - Ritual in Architecture, Verso, 1995. See also What, if anything, is a rabbit? Kari Jormakka, Architecture Theorist - Gedenkschrift, ed. Gareth Griffiths and Dörte Kuhlmann, Datutop, 2020. [3]
- ^ "Sana Ihatsu, "Naistenklinikka rakennushistoriaselvitys" (Women's Hospital Building-Historical Report) (in Finnish), 2011" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-10-02. Retrieved 2018-09-16.
- ^ Bruno Erat, Solbranten House 1, Espoo, 1978-79. See: Esa Piironen, Small Houses in Finland. Rakennustieto, Helsinki, 2004, 24-27.
- ^ http://www.schauman-nordgren.com/category/2017/ Archived 2017-09-23 at the Wayback Machine Schauman Nordgren SNA wins 3 out of 3 competitions in 3 months!
Further reading
- Asgaard Andersen, Michael, ed. (2009), Nordic Architects Write: A Documentary Anthology, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-46351-5.
- Connah, Roger (2005), Finland - Modern Architectures in History, London: Reaktion, ISBN 978-1861892508.
- Connah, Roger (2007), The Piglet Years: The Lost Militancy in Finnish Architecture, Tampere: Datutop, ISBN 978-952-15-1702-0.
- Hautajärvi, Harri, ed. (2017), The Building of Finland, Helsinki: Rakennustieto, ISBN 978-952-267-209-4.
- Helander, Vilhelm (1995), Modern Architecture in Finland, Helsinki: Kirjayhtymä.
- Korvenmaa, Pekka, ed. (1992), The Work of Architects - The Finnish Association of Architects 1892-1992, Helsinki: Finnish Building Centre, ISBN 951-682-243-6.
- Lilius, Henrik (1985), The Finnish Wooden Town, Birthe Krüger, Denmark: Anders Nyborg, ISBN 87-85176-23-0.
- Nikula, Riita (1993), Architecture and Landscape - The Building of Finland, Helsinki: Otava.
- Nikula, Riita (1994), Heroism and the Everyday: Building Finland in the 1950s, Helsinki: Museum of Finnish Architecture.
- Nikula, Riita (2006), Focus on Finnish 20th century architecture and town planning, Helsinki: Yliopistopaino, ISBN 9789529214631.
- Norri, Marja-Riitta; Wang, Wilfried (eds.) (2007), 20th Century Architecture: Finland, Berlin: Prestel
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has generic name (help). - Paavilainen, Simo, ed. (1982), Nordic Classicism 1910-1930, Helsinki: Museum of Finnish Architecture, ISBN 951-9229-21-3.
- Pettersson, Lars (1989), Finnish Wooden Churches, Helsinki: Museum of Finnish Architecture.
- Porphyrios, Demetri (1983), Sources of Modern Eclecticism, London: Academy Editions, ISBN 0-312-74673-3.
- Richards, J.M. (1978), 800 Years of Finnish Architecture, London: David & Charles.
- Salokorpi, Asko, ed. (1982), Writings on Architecture - Abacus Yearbook 3, Helsinki: Museum of Finnish Architecture, ISBN 951-9229-27-2.
- Salokorpi, Asko (1985), Classical Tradition and the Modern Movement, Helsinki: Museum of Finnish Architecture, ISBN 951-9229-38-8.
- Wäre, Ritva (1993), How Nationalism was Expressed in Finnish Architecture at the Turn of the Last Century, Dublin: Irish Academic Press.
External links
- Architecture of Finland website
- Media related to Architecture of Finland at Wikimedia Commons