Cannabis in Italy

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Cannabis in Italy is currently

psychoactive compounds (a.k.a. cannabis light).[1][2]

Historical background

Main article: History of cannabis in Italy

The cultivation of cannabis in

Italian Unification, only to experience a sudden decline during the second half of the 20th century, with the introduction of synthetic fibers and the start of the war on drugs
, and only recently it is slowly experiencing a resurgence.

Recent developments

Residue of a THC-free Futura 75 cannabis sativa plant, after having been washed with ethanol to extract CBD for further research, at the Polytechnic University of Milan.
See also: History of cannabis in Italy § EU regulations and incentives

The production of cannabis for both medical and industrial purposes has seen a resurgence in Italy in recent years, as a consequence of dedicated EU regulations, and the development of

THC below 0.2%, which came into force in 2017, and prompted hundreds of new businesses to start growing cannabis in several Regions, with the estimated cultivation area increasing ten-fold, from 400 ha (4.0 km2; 1.5 sq mi) in 2013 to almost 4,000 ha (40.0 km2; 15.4 sq mi) in 2018.[4]

The national hemp cultivation area involves more than 800 farms, mainly spread between the Regions of Tuscany, Piedmont, Veneto, Sicily, Apulia, Emilia-Romagna, Basilicata, Abruzzo, and Sardinia.[5] The size of the individual hemp farms can vary from small patches of 0.001 ha (10.0 m2; 12.0 sq yd) in the mountains, to fields spanning more than 100 ha (1.0 km2; 0.4 sq mi) in the plains, particularly in Campania, and almost all of them use the harvested crops to produce more than one type of end-product.[6] The certified seeds used for sowing can come from Italian Hemp Associations and Cooperatives, such as Tecnocanapa, Assocanapa, and Federcanapa; as well as from abroad, particularly Germany, France, and the general area of Northeastern Europe.[6] In regard to possible future expansions, it is estimated that with the potential redevelopment of already-existing greenhouses, which either fell into disuse or were abandoned due to the crisis of the horti-floriculture sector, Italy would have ready access to a further 1,000 ha (10.0 km2; 3.9 sq mi) of farm land for the production of medical cannabis within secure environments.[7]

In terms of imports of industrial cannabis, Italy reported in 2017 a total of 8 t of seeds for sowing, 884 t of seeds for other uses, and 0.3 t of fiber, while the reported numbers for 2018 were equal to 46, 557, and 11 t, respectively.

Observatory of Economic Complexity, Italy was the 5th largest importer of hemp fibers in the world in 2020, although the goods were just the 1,104th most imported product of the country.[8] Moreover, the main import markets for Italy were Spain, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Austria, and Switzerland, of which Netherlands, Spain, and Austria were the fastest growing between 2019 and 2020; while the main importing competitors for Italy in 2020 were Spain, Germany, and Switzerland.[8] In terms of exports, Italy was the 4th largest exporter of hemp fibers in the world in 2020, even though the goods were just the 1,033rd most exported product of the country.[8] Furthermore, the main export markets for Italian hemp are Switzerland, France, Luxembourg, Spain, and the United Kingdom, the first three of which were the fastest growing ones between 2019 and 2020; while the main exporting competitors for Italy in 2020 were France, the Netherlands, and the United States.[8]

In regard to

publicity programs, the Canapa Mundi International Hemp Expo was established in 2015, based on an idea from its founder and pioneer of the modern Italian hemp market Gennaro Maulucci, and it is officially recognized by the Region of Lazio as an International Fair.[9][10] In the last few years, the annual event has been held at the Fiera di Roma exhibition center in Rome, with the attendance of as many as 30,000 visitors, as well as several hundreds of both national and international entities, including research institutes, private companies, and universities.[9][10] Besides providing exposure of the cannabis and hemp sectors to the wider public, the exhibition also aims at supporting the companies that work in these fields, with a list of addressed topics that include biodiversity, sustainability, food, wellness, textiles, constructions, culture, and innovation.[9][10] Nevertheless, the earliest Italian trade show dedicated to the many facets of the hemp business is the Indica Sativa Trade International Hemp Fair, whose first edition was held in Fermo in 2013.[11][12] In recent years, the annual event has been held at the Unipol Arena in Bologna, with the attendance of as many as 25,000 visitors, as well as hundreds of exhibitors and business professionals, including representatives from ConfAgricoltura, Cia – Agricoltori Italiani, FederCanapa, Assocanapa, Coldiretti, EasyJoint, and The Bulldog.[11][12] Although the event has a particular focus on the Italian hemp market, it involves a significant number of European and worldwide producers, with dozens of training courses, conferences, and seminars covering a wide range of topics, including recreational use, constructions, health, pet food, natural food, textiles, energy, and agriculture.[11][12]

Legalization efforts

cannabis use among all adults
aged 15 to 64 years old, in nationwide surveys among the general population of Europe.
See also: History of cannabis in Italy § Early drug prohibition, and History of cannabis in Italy § Drug prohibition

In 2012, a study was published regarding the trace presence of psychotropic substances such as

Italian cities, namely Palermo, Turin, Rome, Bologna, Florence, Milan, Naples, and Verona.[13] The analysis of a year's worth of atmospheric data revealed what appears to be a seasonal trend in the consumption of cannabinoids, with measurements consistently peaking during winter in all eight locations, while all but disappearing during the warmer period between May and August.[13]

In addition, higher-than-average levels of cannabinoids were measured in both Bologna and Florence, and these were mainly attributed to student culture, considering that the two

international students every year, especially when compared with their respective small populations, both numbering between 350,000 and 400,000 residents.[13] In fact, according to a 2017 Parliamentary report on drug addiction in Italy, cannabis is the most common psychoactive substance among both the adult and the very young, with about 90,000 Italian students reporting an almost daily cannabis consumption, and almost 150,000 appearing to make problematic use of the drug.[14]

In regard to

recreational purposes at least once in 2014, as well as more than 25% of high school students in 2016.[15][14] Moreover, according to a 2018 report by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Italy ranks 3rd in the European Union in terms of cannabis use, with a lifetime consumption rate of 33.1%, after France at 41.4%, and Denmark at 38.4%.[14][16][17] Nevertheless, despite an increased availability of cannabis-derived products with elevated THC levels, only 11% of users seek treatment from public services, while hospital admissions related to cannabis use constitute only 12% of those related to drug use in general.[14]

2016 political debate

Pro-legalization graffiti in Venice, marking the cannabis leaf symbol as Erba Buona (i.e. good weed), and the symbol of the Northern League party as Erba Cattiva (i.e. bad weed).

The popularity of

GDP boost resulting from a legal cannabis market in Italy is estimated between 1.30% and 2.34%.[18]

Nevertheless, legalization efforts were opposed by several conservative and

constitutional referendum and the subsequent resignation of then Prime Minister Matteo Renzi
on 12 December 2016, legalization efforts stalled in Parliament.

Cannabis light

Cannabis light store in Naples.

In 2016, the cannabis light Law 242/16 removed the need for authorization to plant certified cannabis seeds with levels of THC below 0.2%, which is lower than the 0.3% limit defined by the EU Regulation 2021/2115 of 2 December 2021,

State entities can carry out inspections if it is deemed necessary.[5][6]

The potential revenue from the sale of cannabis light in Italy was estimated to be more than 40 million euros, and by 2018 hundreds of new businesses started growing cannabis in several Regions.

online shops, were part of an emerging hemp sector that employed as much as 10,000 people, with an average age of 35 years, generating an annual revenue equal to 150 million euros.[28]

Nevertheless, in September 2018, then Interior Minister and Northern League party leader

Ministry of Health, recommended in April 2018 to stop the free sale of cannabis light, as a public health precaution.[14][30] The Council argued that the industrial applications of cannabis, as envisaged in the Law 242/16, do not include cannabis inflorescences; and they also cited a lack of scientific studies on the effects of even small levels of THC on possibly vulnerable subjects such as older people, breastfeeding mothers, and patients with certain pathologies, which prevents them form ruling out possible health risks.[14][30] Adding to the uncertainty in the cannabis light market, the Supreme Court of Cassation ruled in May 2019 that the sale of derivatives of cannabis sativa which do not fall within the scope of the Law 242/16, most notably oils, resins, buds, and leaves, is illegal under Italian Law unless such products are effectively devoid of narcotic effects.[31][32] The Court also reaffirmed that only certain agricultural varieties of cannabis are permitted under the Law 242/16, which was meant to benefit farmers growing industrial hemp.[31][32]

In 2019, a team of economists from the

Erasmus School of Economics published a study on the effect of light cannabis liberalization in Italy on the organized crime. Albeit light cannabis does not generate hype as illegal marijuana, the study showed that confiscations of illegal marijuana declined with the opening of light cannabis shops. The authors also found a reduction in the number of confiscations of hashish and plants of marijuana along with a reduction of arrests for drug-related offenses. Forgone revenues for criminal organizations were estimated to be at least 90–170 million euros per year.[33] Conversely, the total revenue from the cannabis light market was estimated to be more than 200 million euros in 2020.[34]

On 14 February 2023, the Regional Administrative Court of Lazio annulled a Ministerial Decree that was promulgated on 21 January 2022, which limited the purposes of industrial cannabis production to the exclusive use of the seeds and seeds derivatives.[24] In particular, the aim of the Decree was to place the cultivation, processing, and marketing of non-narcotic hemp leaves and inflorescences under the purview of the Ministry of Health, which would have been responsible for issuing the necessary authorizations for such activities, as if they involved narcotics.[24] As a result of the Court's ruling, the use of the whole hemp plant is authorized in Italy, including leaves and inflorescences, thus bringing the country in line with EU regulations.[24]

International treaties

Emblem of the United Nations.

On 2 December 2020, under the recommendation of the

UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND) voted to remove both cannabis and cannabis resin from the Schedule IV classification of the aforementioned 1961 UN Convention, while still including them both in the less strict Schedule I category.[35][36] In its capacity as a serving member of the CND, and in agreement with other members of the EU, with the exception of Hungary, Italy voted in favor of the rescheduling proposal, since it would allow more research, in line with our evidence-based drugs policy, on the medical use of cannabis and cannabis resin.[37]

Among the other recommendations of the WHO, there was the proposed addition of a footnote to the Schedule I section of the Convention, stating that preparations containing predominantly cannabidiol and not more than 0.2 per cent of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol are not under international control.[35] However, the proposal was ultimately rejected by a majority of member states for several reasons, including the argument that no action is needed on CBD since it is not currently under international control.[36] In this case, Italy voted against the recommended footnote, citing as reasons the lack of scientific evidence on the proposed 0.2% limit, ambiguous wordings within the draft that could lead to divergent interpretations, and the absence of justification for the proposed different treatment of cannabidiol compared to other non-psychoactive cannabinoids.[37]

Personal use

highest court of appeal
in Italy.

In July 2008, the Supreme Court of Cassation ruled that followers of the Rastafari religion can smoke marijuana as a meditative herb after a man from Perugia, who was initially sentenced in 2004 to 16 months in jail and a €4,000 (4,900 US$) fine for possession of 97 g of marijuana, was acquitted on religious grounds.[38][39] In December 2019, the Court ruled that cultivating domestically small amounts of cannabis for the exclusive use of the grower is legal under Italian Law, after being asked to clarify previous conflicting interpretations of the law.[40][41][42] The ruling did not specify what constitutes a legally allowed small amount of cannabis, however the defendant involved was initially sentenced by a lower court to one year in prison and a €3,000 (3,900 US$) fine for the possession of two plants.[41][42]

The Court argued that public health is not threatened by a single cannabis user cultivating a few plants in a domestic setting and, to justify the assessment of a personal use of the plants, it pointed out the small size of the cultivation.

Senate on technical grounds.[40][42]

In April 2021, a patient with acute

criminal organization for drug trafficking in both Italy and Europe.[46]

In September 2021, a preliminary text was approved by the Justice

hard drugs like heroin, while it would increase penalties related to drug trafficking to 6–10 years.[47]

2021 decriminalization initiative

Legality of cannabis in Europe.

At the same time, a

Power to the People, Communist Refoundation, and Italian Left.[48][49][50]

In its first week of operation, the campaign collected 400 thousand signatures in less than four days and reached the required 500 thousand signatures well before the deadline set at the end of September, which would have allowed the referendum to take place as early as spring 2022.[48][49][50][52] The speed at which the signatures were collected was made possible by a law approved in July 2021 that allows for signatures to be collected online, while previously only in-person signing was allowed, and the campaigners continued to collect signatures up until the deadline, to make sure that the initiative would not be rejected due to some of them being ruled invalid.[53] In fact, the campaign managed to collect as much as 630 thousand electronic signatures in a single week, 70% of which were from people under 35 years old.[34]

As prescribed by the law, the collected signatures were verified by the Supreme Court of Cassation on 12 January 2022, however the Constitutional Court ruled on 16 February 2022 that the ballot question was inadmissible, thus preventing the referendum from going forward.

hard drugs would have violated international obligations, and therefore were ruled not in line with the constitutional provisions on referendums in Italy.[54]

Cost–benefit analysis

Incidence of Mafia extortion in the different Provinces of Italy.

According to a

seasonal jobs, mostly involved in the post-harvest manufacturing stage.[55]

The less-likely alternative is the Dutch model, in which production and distribution would not be under the purview of the State, although the drug would still be taxed.[55] As a consequence, the cultivation, marketing, and sale of the final products would be left to the private sector, resulting in the establishment of tens of thousands of coffeeshops to satisfy the local demand, and creating about 300,000 jobs.[55] The unlikelihood of this model is mainly attributed to an assumed conservative mindset which, at least initially, would seek to make cannabis legalization as least visible as possible, despite the reduced fiscal benefits.[55]

Another significant benefit is the removal of the costs of prohibitionism, which include missed tax revenues, prosecution expenses, policing costs, and

prison overcrowding, for an estimated total of 500 million euros each year, that could instead be refocused on more serious offences and more dangerous substances.[55] In regard to the organized crime, which currently has a monopoly on an illegal cannabis market conservatively estimated to be worth between 4 and 5 billion euros, it is believed that legalization would not cause the black market to suddenly disappear.[55] Conversely, at least in the short term, the State would compete with criminal organizations benefiting from a 30 to 40 years experience in full control of the sector, that could still find a minority of customers willing to buy cheaper illegal products.[55] In the long term, a significant problem would be the potential infiltration of organized crime into the different sections of the newly legalized cannabis market, especially with the possible establishment of front organizations for the purpose of money laundering.[55]

In terms of public health, the legalization of cannabis would allow for more scientific research; it would disincentivize the use of potentially hazardous, low-quality, illegal products, for which the cannabis is often processed with harmful substances to reduce costs and increase profit margins; and it would cause a split in the black market for narcotics by distancing cannabis users from illegal pushers, who are economically incentivized to sell more dangerous drugs, such as heroin and cocaine, in addition to cannabis.[55]

2022 general election campaign

Italian Senate and Chamber of Deputies
, respectively, during the 2022 general election.

Following the removal of the cannabis decriminalization proposal from the

Ince.[56][57]

During the

+Europa; those that did not touch the subject, which included Action – Italia Viva, Brothers of Italy, Forza Italia, and Italexit; and the only one that was publicly and unambiguously against it, namely the League.[58]

Even though the Brothers of Italy party, led by the subsequently-elected Prime Minister

coalition government together with both Brothers of Italy and Forza Italia, campaigned on the position of stopping any decriminalization or legalization proposal; dismissing any distinction between hard and soft drugs, echoed in the often-used slogan Drug is Death; and launching sensibilization campaigns aimed at minors and their parents, regarding the dangers of the drug culture, and in particular the effects of the habitual use of cannabis on the cognitive development of the youths.[58]

In contrast, the most fervently pro-legalization platform, published by Possible, pointed at the case study of Portugal which, according to a 2017 report by the IZA Institute of Labor Economics, experienced a decrease in both the number of drug-related deaths, and the number of new patients entering drug rehabilitation, following its decriminalizion of all drugs in 2001.[58] Similarly, the other proponents reiterated the need to legalize cannabis cultivation for personal use in the context of both fighting organized crime, and ensuring that medical cannabis is available to patients in need, as well as a matter of individual liberties.[58] Other proposals also include the launching of information and prevention campaigns for schools, as well as the wider public, to increase the public awareness regarding the risks of any form of substance abuse and dependence.[58]

In regard to the private sector, the

agamic reproduction of hemp plants, investments into new varieties for different uses, the processing of all parts of the plant, the definition of a THC level below which all parts of the plant are marketable, and the reorganization of the means of production for cannabis-based pharmaceuticals.[59]

Law enforcement

Cannabis inflorescences are classified as

Ministry of Agricultural, Food, and Forestry Policies (MAF).[60]

Central Office for Narcotics

In November 2015, Italy instituted the Central Office for Narcotics, in accordance with the 1961 UN Convention and subsequent amendments, which instruct countries allowing the cultivation of cannabis for medical purposes to create a state agency for its management.[61] The functions of the Central Office for Narcotics include:[61][62]

  • implementing national and EU regulations regarding narcotics and psychoactive drugs;
  • updating the official list of narcotics and psychoactive substances;
  • authorizing the cultivation of cannabis for the production of medicine and other substances;
  • approving areas dedicated to the cultivation of cannabis;
  • approving the exportation, importation, distribution within the national territory, and storage of cannabis plants and derived materials, with the exception of stocks kept in facilities authorized for the production of medicine;
  • determining the production quotas based on Regional requests, and relaying that information to the International Narcotics Control Board.

Central Directorate for Anti-Drug Services

drug residues at the Caserma Ederle, in Vicenza
.

The

Ministry of Interior, in the fight against drug trafficking.[63] The three law enforcement agencies are equally represented in the Directorate, with the general director being selected every three years from the three agencies on a rotational basis.[63] The Directorate was originally instituted as the Anti-Drug Directorate through the Law 685/75 of 1975, and underwent several changes over the years, becoming the Central Anti-Drug Services through the Law 121/81 of 1981, until the Law 16/91 of 1991 defined its current structure and functions.[63]
The Directorate is made of three main branches, each containing two Divisions.

The General and International Affairs (GIA) branch manages multilateral, training, and legislative initiatives, as well as providing technical support to the Judiciary Police. International initiatives are coordinated with the United Nations, the European Union, as well as other agencies including the G7 Rome-Lyon Group, the Maritime Analysis and Operations Centre, Ameripol, the Paris Pact Initiative, and the International Drug Enforcement Conference.[64] The GIA branch manages training and educational activities at both a national and international level through courses, conferences, and workshops; and it also gives technical-juridical advice with regards to bills and regulations on narcotics and drug trafficking.[64]

The Studies, Research, and Information (SRI) branch conducts research and intelligence activities, in particular monitoring national and international drug trafficking. The analysis includes local consumption statistics, trafficking routes, production and market areas, concealment methods, demographics of the people involved, and evolution of new narcotics.

arrests, and deaths, subsequently relaying these data to the National Statistics System (SISTAN), as well as using them for internal reports. Finally, the SRI branch offers support upon request in terms of providing bibliographical references for academic and research purposes.[64]

The Anti-Drug Operations (ADO) branch coordinates police activities against drug trafficking through intelligence, strategic, operational, and technical-logistical support both at a national and international level.

monitors internet activities related to drug trafficking.[64]

Illegal drug trade

CIA
map depicting the major cultivation areas, and the main international trafficking routes, of marijuana and hashish in 1989.

The main narcotic substances obtained from the

Italian black market for marijuana is also supplied by the Netherlands, as well as local producers.[65]

According to data from the

exponential increase in personal cannabis cultivations, mainly due to the particularly favorable Italian climate.[55]

Medical cannabis

Medicine bottles from the 19th century on display at the Hash, Marihuana & Hemp Museum in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
See also: History of cannabis in Italy § Medical use of cannabis

Since 1998, doctors in Italy have been able to prescribe cannabis products and synthetic cannabinoids for therapeutic use, with a non-repeatable prescription, while the therapeutic uses of THC, dronabinol, and nabilone are recognized since 2007.[66] After the inclusion of the active compounds of cannabis plant origin in the Medical Table by Ministerial Decree on 23 January 2013, doctors in Italy are able to prescribe cannabis-based medicine and any pharmacy, if properly supplied, can distribute cannabis products in the forms and doses defined in the doctor's prescription.[66][67][68] Medical cannabis can be used for treating several conditions, and its prescription is allowed when the patient is unresponsive to conventional or standard therapies, while the list of medical applications includes:[66][69][70][71]

There are three

psychiatric disorders, damage to the airways and lungs, risk of addiction, and weight reduction in newborn babies if used during pregnancy.[66]

The cost of medical cannabis is completely covered by the

price cap has resulted in a short supply of the product due to limited profit margins for pharmacies, while regional legislative differences also add to the overall complexity of the cannabis market.[74] For example, the Regions have the ability to decide for which health conditions the drug can or cannot be prescribed, and they can also increase local prices to make it profitable for pharmacies to sell medical cannabis (e.g. Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol), or alternatively they can completely cover the cost for patients through their Regional Health Agencies (e.g. Sicily).[74][75] As a comparison, the cost of medical cannabis imported from the Netherlands is reported between €5 (5.3 US$) and €10 (10.7 US$) per gram.[73]

In October 2019, the first public clinic specifically dedicated to the

start-ups.[77]

State-produced medical cannabis

A dried cannabis flower bud.

At the time of the legalization of medical cannabis, the cost of the medicine wasn't

Good Manufacturing Practices of the EU.[66][78]

The army production of medical cannabis increased from 20 kg (44.1 lb) between 2014 and 2016 to more than 100 kg (220.5 lb) in 2017,

hydroponic irrigation.[81] The increased production was also achieved thanks to the increase in the number of growrooms, from just two in 2016 to the current ten, as well as the six annual harvests carried out in each one of the six flowering rooms, which individually contain between 50 and 125 cannabis plants.[81]

The state-run production and distribution of medical cannabis is the result of a collaboration between the

VAT.[84][85] The military facility currently produces two registered types of cannabis-based ingredients,[81] which are then distributed to pharmacies in a minced form to be used in their formulations.[70]

The first product is Cannabis FM2 (a.k.a. Farmaceutico Militare 2, i.e. Military Pharmaceutical 2),

symptoms of conditions like multiple sclerosis.[78] In 2023, the facility is also aiming to produce cannabis-infused olive oil, which patients can take in drop forms.[81]

Chemical-Pharmaceutical Military Institute

Entrance to the Chemical-Pharmaceutical Military Institute in Florence.

The origins of the Chemical-Pharmaceutical Military Institute in Florence date back to 1853 in the

Italian peninsula, to improve the distribution of supplies.[70] The current facility, covering about 55,000 m2, was thus constructed in Florence, becoming operational in October 1931, and producing several types of medicine, medical supplies, cosmetics, and food products, with a workforce peaking at 2,000 people in the 1940s.[70]

Renamed the Chemical-Pharmaceutical Military Institute in 1976, beside the production of medical cannabis, the institute also produces five different

Chernobyl nuclear disaster of 1986, for which the institute produced 500 thousand pills of potassium iodide in less than 24 hours, to combat the thyroid damage caused by Iodine-131.[70] The facility has also been involved in the production of medicine and medical supplies for international assistance, such as during the Romanian revolution of December 1989.[70] More recently, the Army's activities facilitated a steady increase of its involvement in the public health sector, that further accelerated during the COVID-19 pandemic, for which military personnel was charged to set up treatment tents and transport vaccines.[81]

The military facility is a

outsource the main operation to the private sector.[81]

Private sector

Micrograph showing the cellular structure of cannabis sativa (left) and cannabis indica (right).

The potential revenue from medicinal cannabis is estimated to be more than 1.4 billion euros, with the internal market creating at least 10,000 jobs and reducing the dependence on imports.[4] In September 2021, the Ministry of Health clarified that industrial hemp can be cultivated for the purpose of supplying pharmaceutical companies authorized to manufacture active pharmaceutical ingredients, on the conditions that the growers obtain the required authorizations and use exclusively EU certified seeds.[24] In addition, licensed private companies can also import cannabis-based medicine from abroad; for instance, the Italian pharmaceutical distribution company FL Group, a division of the American Tilray Medical, received authorization in 2023 to import and distribute three new compounds, with the aim of reaching more than 12,000 pharmacies through dedicated marketing and information campaigns on the benefits of medical cannabis.[88]

In February 2021, Bio Hemp Farming, which is a

cryogenic process in which the low temperatures allow to reduce the preparation time for the final product from 2 or 3 days to about 15 minutes.[90]

Another noteworthy application of cannabis-based medications is in

cell tissues, reduce the proliferation of sebocytes, and have an anti-inflammatory effect on cells affected by acne.[91]

Consumption statistics

Codice Fiscale
.

The Ministry of Health also publishes consumption statistics for medical cannabis both at a national and a regional level, based on regional distribution requests and the authorized sale of the product, and the military facility determines its production quotas by taking into account the consumption data from the previous two years, as well as the yearly increases.[85] The annual legal consumption of medical cannabis has grown from 40 kg (88.2 lb) in 2013 to nearly 10 times that in 2017, and the demand is expected to further quadruple as the value of cannabis is more widely understood by doctors.[25] The high demand caused pharmacies throughout Italy to run out of medical cannabis by September 2017, prompting many patients with prescriptions to turn to the black market, while in January 2018 the importation of cannabis was extended to Canada.[25][92][93] Currently, imports of medical cannabis from the Netherlands, Canada, Denmark, and Germany are used to compensate for the deficit in the internal production.[81]

As of March 2021, it is estimated that more than 2 million patients in Italy could benefit from medical cannabis, while the total needs are estimated to be at least 2,900 kg (6,393 lb) per year, according to the Estimated World Requirements of Narcotic Drugs 2021 report by the International Narcotics Control Board.

international travel, a decree issued by the Ministry of Health on 16 November 2007 details all the rules and procedures that should be followed, to allow the carrying of small quantities of medical preparations containing narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances for personal use.[95] In particular, whether they are leaving or entering Italy, travellers carrying small quantities of medical preparations that contain internationally controlled substances are required to hold certain documents, such as a valid medical prescription, attesting that such preparations were lawfully obtained in the country of departure.[95]

National consumption of medical cannabis in Italy in kg[85]
Year Total sales from
wholesalers
 Imports authorized by the Ministry of Health for the Local Health Agencies Total sales from the military facility to pharmacies Military production quotas[24] Total consumption
2014 33.315 25.275 0 – 58.59
2015 61.9 56.725 0 – 118.625
2016 127.305 102.41 0 – 229.715
2017 162.475 129.265 59.745 150 351.485
2018 284.29 147.265 146.905 250 578.46
2019 451.025 252.485 157.165 350 860.675
2020 664.94 215.255 242.6 500 1,122.795
2021 742.5 251.46 277.515 500 1,271.475
2022 997.87 327.42 235.39 400 1,560.68
2023 – – – 400 –

Industrial cannabis

Illustration comparing the sizes of the main varieties of cannabis.
See also: History of cannabis in Italy § Hemp fiber production, and History of cannabis in Italy § Hemp farming techniques

In 2016, Italy removed the need for authorization to grow certified hemp with levels of THC below 0.2%, while also providing

MAF.[5][17][26] Moreover, a Common Agricultural Policy payment ranging between €250 (285 US$) and €400 (457 US$) per hectare can be granted to Italian hemp growers, and this does not include further possible local funding independently allocated by the various Regions and comuni.[5][26] On 24 December 2021, through Ministerial Decree, the MAF allocated 3 million euros (3.2 million US$) to the national hemp sector, which included support payments to local hemp growers amounting to €300 ($319) per hectare, up to maximum of 50 ha (0.5 km2; 123.6 acres).[24]

In regard to research and development, as opposed to farmers, the previously mentioned Law 242/16 allows

agroindustrial, nutraceutical, bio-building, biocomponent, and packaging fields.[6]

In fact, the aim of the Law 242/16 is to stimulate the production of industrial hemp in the country, as well as to offer an alternative to the cultivation of wheat for farmers damaged by low prices,

produced in China, as well as other Asian countries.[96] This competition is reportedly contributing to the prevalence in Italy of cannabis cultivations aimed at the production of inflorescences, as opposed to fiber, since the wholesale of flowers from cannabis sativa can result in a profit between €300 (350 US$) and €1,500 (1800 US$) per kilogram, depending on the quality, and 1 ha (0.01 km2; 2.47 acres) can yield as much as 1,000 kg (2,205 lb) of inflorescences.[96]

Private sector

Shirt made of hemp, with initials.

The cultivation of industrial hemp with minimal levels of psychoactive compounds has several commercial applications, including food,

Max Planck Institut using hemp strains originating from Northern and Central Russia, while the Eletta Campana resulted from a cross between the Carmagnola landrace and German cultivars, most likely Fibridia.[100]

Other hemp-derived products include oils used in

railway, aviation, and aerospace.[27]

In February 2022, a

paper industry, clothing industry, and sustainable architecture.[104] More specifically, the start-up would provide the seeds to the agricultural businesses participating in the project, which would then manage the cultivation of hemp as a rotational crop between the months of March and July, as part of a circular economy model.[104]

Food and beverages

Bottles of hemp oil.

In Italy, certified hemp plants can be used for both industrial and ornamental purposes, however food products can only be derived from the hemp seeds, since they have no THC content, while the consumption of hemp flowers and leaves is still prohibited.[25][4] In particular, the production of hemp seeds for culinary purposes started to gain traction in the country after the Ministry of Health issued a decree in 2009, in which the lawfulness of both hemp seeds and their derivatives was recognized for such uses.[98]

In any case, considering that the demand for hemp-based food was estimated in 2021 to have grown by 500% since 2017, the production chain derived from hemp could significantly grow the Italian

Italian economy.[3] In fact, approximately 80% of the hemp produced in Italy is reportedly destined to the food industry, with an estimated yeld for the production of hemp seeds between 350 kg/ha (312.3 lb/acre) and 650 kg/ha (579.9 lb/acre), while the remaining 20% is used for various industrial purposes, including green buildings, cosmetics, and the nutraceutical sector.[5]

Furthermore, in terms of the

Italian law is concerned, the Canavì combines Verdicchio grapes and cannabis sativa plants with a 0.4% THC content, resulting in a flavored beverage that was inspired by the particularly sought-after and expensive marijuana-infused wines that can be found in California.[107]

Construction materials

Hempcrete blocks being laid around a wooden frame.

In regard to the construction industry, building materials that can be derived from hemp include

in the country.[3]

In 2016, a study by the ENEA research center in

thermal flux and a 20% reduction in their thermal transmittance, while its good permeability for water vapor allows to avoid condensation.[108] As buildings are responsible for a large part of the national energy consumption in Italy, with further ENEA studies showing that households alone account for 45% of CO₂ emissions in the country, hemp-base materials constitute a significant innovation potential for the construction sector.[108]

Soil decontamination

Illustrations depicting the root system of a 1.8 m tall cannabis sativa plant, acquired at the beginning of August, before flowering, in a field located near Klagenfurt, Austria.

Another significant application of industrial cannabis is soil decontamination through

steel plant near Taranto, with the project starting in 2012 after the establishment in 2010 of an exclusion zone for grazing livestock up to 20 km (12.4 mi) from the plant, due to the high levels of dioxins, lead, nickel, and tens of other toxic substances in the ground.[109][110][111] Other similar projects have been tested in several sites in Brescia, in Sardinia, and in the Land of Pyres near Naples.[109]

Besides their presence in the soil either as natural elements or as a result of pollution, another anthropogenic source of heavy metals in some farm lands has been their continued historical use as a predominant pesticide, and all these factors could negatively affect the consumers of cannabis-derived products.[112] For instance, in a 2023 study, marijuana users were found to have 22% higher levels of cadmium and 27% higher levels of lead in their blood, as well as 18% higher levels of cadmium and 21% higher levels of lead in their urine, with respect to non-users.[112]

In 2017, several test sites were established in Sardinia by the Agris Sardegna agency, as part of the

translocate the heavy metals mainly into the leaves and roots, rather than the seeds or the stalk, with the latter having a wider range of industrial applications.[113]

In 2023, a scientific study was published regarding the phytoremediation potentials of the monoecious Futura 75 and KC Dora hemp varieties, as well as the effects of the

European Environmental Agency, which considered the period from 2007 to 2016.[114] The research highlighted the capability of industrial hemp plants to translocate the contaminants from the soils to the aerial parts (i.e. above ground) of the plants, while also completing their life cycle until seed ripening even in heavily contaminated soils, although with different performances in terms of yield and tolerance to the different pollutants.[114] In addition, the low concentration of heavy metals in the hemp seeds was noted to suggest that the same plants could be used afterwards as a source of biofuel, while the remaining biomass (i.e. stems and leaves) could be further converted into bioenergy.[114]

Soil enrichment

Root ball of a hydroponically-grown cannabis plant, with expanded clay aggregate embedded in the growth medium.

Further

soil cover, which reduces water loss and protects against soil erosion.[27]

Hemp plants also consume a significant amount of

atmosphere, with a hemp field spanning just 1 ha (0.01 km2; 2.47 acres) being able to sequester between 9 and 15 t of CO₂ after just five months.[27][96] In fact, hemp is seen as a potential new protagonist of Italian agriculture, to achieve the objectives of EU 2030, which aim at a 40% decrease in greenhouse gas emissions compared to 1990.[3]

Plant diseases and pests

perithecia
) of the fungus.

Despite the aforementioned lower need for pesticides with respect to other crops, hemp plants can still be threatened by a certain number of pests at different stages of their development. In regard to plant diseases, a few notable cases of fungal infection involving hemp plants were reported in Italy, which could potentially have an impact on the industrial cannabis sector. For example, in 2016, several cases of stem canker with branches dieback were identified in hemp crops located in the Province of Rovigo, in reportedly the first known case of Neofusicoccum parvum infecting cannabis sativa plants worldwide.[115]

In 2019, symptoms of white root rot were identified on hemp plants of the Kompolti variety, during a sanitary survey carried out at a private farm in the Province of Naples.[116] The infected plants were collected for further analyses at the CREA phytosanitary laboratory in Caserta, where death occurred in 10% of the cases, generally within 2–3 weeks after the appearance of the first symptoms, which subsequently deteriorated into yellowing, canopy wilt, as well as signs of roots covered with white mycelium and fan-like mycelium under the bark.[116] The causal agent was isolated from small root segments and identified as the Rosellinia necatrix, in reportedly the first known European case of this fungus infecting hemp plants.[116] As the surveyed farm is reported to have historically produced apples for over 30 years, an adaptation of the fungus to the new host has been hypothesized.[116]

In 2021, during variety comparison trials carried out in Campania on seven of the hemp cultivars considered relevant for bast fiber production, a germination failure between 80% and 90% was observed during the emergence of

spp. produce a wide range of toxic metabolites, their presence would undermine the safety of the food derived form the infected seeds, while also negatively impacting the entire hemp supply chain.[117]

See also

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