History of cannabis in Italy

The

In 1954, a now-famous

Instead, the presence of cannabis could be attributed to environmental contamination, whether during the processing of the content (if the oil traces are indeed from hemp), the deposition of the vases and the sealing of the room, or possibly more recently during the excavation, storage, and handling of the archaeological find.^[11] Although the oil processing hypothesis is unlikely due to the fact that hemp oil would have been produced from the seeds of female plants, airborne pollen contamination from a local cultivation area before the room was closed is possible, with male hemp plants usually flowering earlier than female ones.^[11] Other potential causes also include a contemporary symbolic use of hemp plants, and the possible use of hemp textiles to decorate the room, since male plants were the preferred source of fiber.^[11]

Ancient Carthage

In 1969,

Tun' mare transilias? Tibi torta cannabe fulto coena sit in transtro?
Note. Apostrophe from the Satura V by Persius, directed at Lucius Annaeus Cornutus, attesting the use of hemp ropes in Roman ships, meaning Would you bound over the sea? Would you have your dinner on a thwart, seated on a coil of hemp?.^[13][14]

One of the earliest authors from the

According to Pliny,

Canapa, lino, e lenta, prima semenza.
Note. Umbrian proverb from Valnerina on the importance of hemp, meaning Hemp, flax, and lentil, first among seeds.^[33]

After the

Between 1304 and 1309, Bolognese jurist and landowner Pietro de' Crescenzi compiled an agricultural treatise entitled De agricultura vulgare, alternatively known as the Ruralia commoda, which includes a section on the cultivation of industrial cannabis at the time.^[35] In the treatise, hemp is described as having the same nature as flax, namely requiring similar air and soil, although the latter does not need to be ploughed as much.^[35] Nevertheless, for the production of ropes, the seeds must be planted in rich soil, to increase the resulting yield, while the sparser the seeds are planted, the more ramified the grown plants will be.^[35] Conversely, for the production of textiles such as cloth sacks, sheets, or shirts, the soil does not need to be as rich, while the seeds must be more densely sowed, to obtain plants without branches, which are more suitable for such products.^[35] Morover, hemp fiber is described as necessary for the production of fishing nets, since it is more water resistant than flax fiber.^[35]

Furthermore, hemp seeds have been used for food for several centuries, especially by the poorer social classes, since they were inexpensive, rich in nutrients, and available even during droughts.^[36][37] In fact, several centuries-old Italian recipes use cannabis sativa as the main ingredient, and these recipes include:^[37]

• the Tortelli con fiori di canapaccia, described in a recipe from the 13th century;
• the
  Minestra di canapuccia, which is described as good for the invalids in the Registrum coquine, written around 1430 by Johannes de Bockenheim, who was a German clergyman and cook in the service of Pope Martin V
  ;
• the
  Maestro Martino
  ;
• the
  Bartolomeo Sacchi
  .

Nizari Ismaili Imam Alâ al Dîn Muhammad of Alamut

while drugging his disciples.

So he selected from among his drugs a powder of marvellous virtue, which he had gotten in the Levant from a great prince, who averred that 'twas wont to be used by the Old Man of the Mountain, when he would send any one to or bring him from his paradise, and that, without doing the recipient any harm, 'twould induce in him, according to the quantity of the dose, a sleep of such duration and quality that, while the efficacy of the powder lasted, none would deem him to be alive.
Note. Excerpt translated from the Decamerone by Boccaccio, which references the use of hashish among the Assassins.[38]

One of the earliest mentions of the use of

Renaissance humanist Giovanni Boccaccio in 1353.^[38]

Republic of Venice

Se la luna xe in colore, el canego more.
Note.

in color, the hemp dies.^[40]

The cultivation of industrial cannabis in

the Marches, and the Middle East, while also incentivizing its own domestic production.^[44][45]

In the

Giovanni Moro were sent in 1455 to the districts of Montagnana and Cologna Veneta, to oversee the necessary hydraulic projects for the construction of several hemp maceration sites.^[41] As a result, public water retting sites were established in Montagnana, Este, and Cologna Veneta, while appointed magistrates were charged with monitoring the implementation of the relevant laws.^[46]

After the establishment of hemp fields in the area around Padua during the second half of the 15th century, Venice became independent from other countries for its strategic supplies.^[47] From the beginning, the agricultural policy project that allowed for this outcome was a joint venture between the public and private sectors, which gave rise to a hybrid organization by which the State determined cultivation procedures, quantities, and price, while the private land owners provided the fields and manpower.^[47] As a result of the widespread control exercised by the State, the hemp production in the Domini di Terraferma eventually became an exstension of the organizational structure of the Arsenal.^[47] In order to further protect its domestic production, the Venetian Republic ended up imposing heavy import duties on hemp fiber in the second half of the 16th century, and eventually banned its importation altogether.^[45] Even though such measures received significant criticism due to their various repercussions on both trade and industries, they also resulted in the development of hemp cultivations in the territories of Polesine, Vicenza, Belluno, and Treviso.^[45]

Hemp and warfare

Grand Admiral Müezzinzade Ali Pasha

(left).

The manufacture of cordage in our house of the Tana [...] is the security of our galleys and ships and similarly of our sailors and capital.
Note. Declaration attributed to the Venetian Senate, on the strategic importance of hemp ropes for the naval strength of the Republic.[48]

In the context of the heavy losses suffered by the

licence issued by the authorities.^[42][44]

After the victory of the

rapid deployment.^[49] Nevertheless, the heavy crisis of the late 16th century dealt a significant blow to the Venetian shipbuilding industry, leaving the Arsenal with a halved reserve of galleys in 1633.^[49] According to contemporary estimates, an 800-botti ship in 1586 required around 24 t (23.6 long tons) of hemp to supply its shrouds and cordage; while the hemp used for sails, ropes, and shrouds, represented 30% of the total cost of a galley in 1600.^[49]

In addition to the state-controlled production aimed at the needs of the Navy, private enterprises were also established for the manufacture of hemp

Famagosta, and Nicosia, among others.^[45]

Traditional hemp rope production

bales, already macerated and dry, and it would be forcefully slammed against a wooden pole, equipped with metal rods, to complete the breakage of the stalk.^[50] The remaining woody fragments would then be removed using comb-like tools of different shapes for both coarser and finer combing, in preparation for the spinning phase.^[50][51] While using scutching tools with ever-finer teeth, the finest of which could have a teeth spacing as small as 1 mm (0.04 in), the artisans would gradually separate the different fibers based on their qualities, including their robustness and color.^[52] The spinning mechanism consisted in a large rotating wooden wheel, placed vertically and firmly fixed to the ground, equipped with laterally protruding rods that supported a winding rope connecting the wheel to several interchangeable wooden cylinders of different dimensions, depending on the final size of the rope to be produced, which were located a few meters away.^[50][51] The rotating wheel would make such cylinders spin, and they could be used to either twist a twine (with a single cylinder), or intertwine three or four strings (with multiple cylinders) to produce different types of rope.^[50][51][52]

Several other tools were used to keep the rope always tightly stretched, while also sustaining its weight along the ropewalk; to avoid hand contact with the rope during twisting; and to keep it constantly

standardized lengths, while the fiber of any leftover would be repurposed.^[42][44]

After the

toponyms of several streets in Venice.^[44]

Kingdom of the Two Sicilies

The cultivation of hemp in southern Italy dates back to the Roman Empire, although the

their hometown was raided and razed by the Saracens.^[53]

Cannabis cultivation in southern Italy continued during the Middle Ages, particularly for the production of textiles, with the establishment of renowned workshops under King Roger II of Sicily, which produced purple and golden fabrics, as well as textiles made from wool, hemp, and linen, for both local and foreign customers.^[34] To regulate and increase both manufacturing and commerce, Emperor Frederick II promulgated several measures, including the establishment of annual fairs in the towns of Sulmona, Capua, Lucera, Bari, Taranto, Cosenza, Lanciano, and L'Aquila, on the occasions of their respective patron saints and lasting several days.^[34]

At the time, the

Italian states, Dalmatia, and Greece; while the Maritime Republics on the Tyrrhenian Sea supplied their arsenals with both raw and woven hemp from the ports of Naples and Amalfi.^[34] Under Frederick II, the exportation of hemp was subjected to the jus exiturae (i.e. right of exit), that is an exit tariff equal to 3 grana for every 100 canes of hemp; while the price of 30 canes of hemp was reported equal to 3 tarì and 8 grana, in a 1290 expenses register from the household of King Charles II of Naples.^[34]

Industrial cannabis production

La canapa per l'Annunziata, o seminata o nata.
Note. Proverb on the sowing period for hemp, meaning The hemp for the Annunciation, either sown or born, with the Feast of the Annunciation being celebrated on 25 March.^[54]

In 1231, Frederick II promulgated the

Charles II of Anjou decreed the closure and reclamation of several maceration sites around Naples in 1300 and 1306,^[7] even though the Royal coffers significantly benefited from renting state-owned wetlands and canals for the retting of both flax and hemp.^[34]

Similar reclamation projects followed during the

Gaspar de Bracamonte from an infection in Pozzuoli in 1663, retting activities continued in the Phlegraean Fields until the second half of the 19th century, when they became unprofitable.^[7] Subsequently, the Agnano lake was decontaminated and drained between 1866 and 1870, with its surface at the time spanning between 90 ha (0.9 km²; 0.3 sq mi) and 130 ha (1.3 km²; 0.5 sq mi) within a volcanic crater about 2.07 km (1.29 mi) wide.^[7][56][57] This land reclamation project was carried out to remove the rotting fumes, as well as to prevent further outbreaks of the mosquito-borne malaria by reducing the local habitat of the Anopheles mosquito.^[7]

Nevertheless, from the 17th century onwards, the hemp cultivation area in Campania steadily increased to include the southern part of the modern-day

coats of arms.^[58][59]

Hemp rope production

The oldest corderia that is still operating in Italy was established in 1796 in

full-rigged three-masted tall ship that had twenty-six sails made from textile hemp, for a total area of about 2,500 m² (26,910 sq ft), while the rigging ropes were made of both hemp and Manila hemp.^[61] The slightly larger twin ship NS Amerigo Vespucci, launched in 1931 and still in operation with the Italian Navy to the present day, has twenty-four sails made from textile hemp, for a total area of about 2,635 m² (28,363 sq ft) and a thickness ranging between 2 mm (0.08 in) and 4 mm (0.16 in), while the rigging ropes are currently made of both Manila hemp and nylon.^[62]

Another noteworthy site for the production of ropes in the

risk of collapse.^[63][64]

Papal States

lifting tower and the hemp cordage used to re-erect the Vatican obelisk

at the center of St. Peter's Square on 10 September 1586.

And I will extol hemp and the true culture of such a noble shoot, that in the Fields of Italy and, more than anywhere else, in the lands of Felsina and in the nearby most flourishing enclosure of Cento, it rises and grows green and forms shady forests.^[a]
Note. Excerpt translated from Il Canapajo by Baruffaldi, which attests the importance of hemp cultivation in the region.^[66]

Although only limited information is available on the cultivation of industrial cannabis in the Italian peninsula before 1000 A.D., historical-ecclesiastical accounts from the Early Middle Ages reported that a Roman community of artisans involved in the processing of hemp established workshops and dwellings around the late 6th – early 7th century A.D., in and around the remains of the Basilica Julia, in the Roman Forum.^[34] The trade of these canapari mainly consisted in the production of hemp twines and ropes, as well as possibly wickers, sacks, and rough textiles; and the spiritual life of the community centered around the small church of Santa Maria in Cannapara, which derived its name from said activities and was also located among the porticoes of the Basilica, until its demolition in the 16th century.^[34]

In any case, the cultivation of hemp in what are now

Abbey of Sassovivo, and in ancient statutes of the town of Foligno, as well as other towns in the March of Ancona.^[23][67][68] After the affirmation of Papal rule over Romagna in the early 16th century, hemp and wheat became two of the main exports of the Papal States, so much so that several regulations emanated by Pope Paul III in 1543,^[45][b] and later reaffirmed by Pope Sixtus V in 1586, defined the processing standards required for hemp for it to be exported.^[5][23] In fact, the exportation of raw hemp from Bologna, when it was temporarily under Papal rule, had already been forbidden by a bull from Pope Gregory XI in 1376, to allow the inhabitants to keep the revenue derived from the processing of hemp plants,^[5] thus providing work to as many as 12,000 people in the city at the time.^[69] In addition, the export ban also prompted Venice to further increase its hemp cultivation area, particularly in the area around Padua.^[69]

Industrial use of cannabis

Torta tibi funes dat cannabis : utile semen oviparis : gravidis sed nocet ille cibus.^[c]
Note.

oviparous : but that food is harmful to pregnant women.^[71][72]

Hemp plants were used in their entirety, namely the

pillowcases, and tablecloths, decorated with copper stamps in the traditional green and rust colors, through a centuries-old artisan process that first requires a heavy mangle to smoothen and soften the initially rough and rigid hand-woven fabric.^[70][75]

Another significant application of industrial cannabis was in

print 140 copies of his Bible in the 15th century.^[79]

Historically, hemp cords were used by the

km; 6.65 mi) of rope with an average thickness equal to a third of a palm (7.17 cm; 2.82 in).^[81]

Industrial cannabis cultivation

Panis vita, cañabis protectio, vinum laetitia.^[d]
Note. Latin inscription meaning Bread is life, hemp is protection, wine is joy, painted across three decorated vaults of the porticoes of Bologna, under the Scappi tower, where market stalls selling such products would once be set up.^[82]

Another important center for cannabis production was located near Viterbo, in Lazio, in the town of Canepina, which derives its name from the once locally widespread cultivation of the plant.^[83] In particular, the lands surrounding the town are rich in water, which flowed along a multitude of streams and rivulets, while the predominantly stony grounds caused the local hemp to acquire a pure white color, which made it particularly sought-after in all contemporary markets, and especially by Roman noblewomen.^[83]

In Umbria, industrial cannabis was cultivated both in the

leased them to other noble families, and these families then subleased them to the eventual farmers, who would then grow hemp and wheat on a rotational basis, switching their crops every two or three years.^[67] The legacy of the cultivation and processing of industrial cannabis is attested in the traditional tools, toponyms, and even nursery rhymes, that can still be found in the area around Foligno.^[67]

Conversely, in the Marches, hemp fields were less common in the countryside, with the exception of the elevated valleys of the

free port of Ancona in 1732.^[23] Moreover, another noteworthy center for the production of ropes and fishing nets in the Papal States was located in San Benedetto del Tronto, where ropemakers used hemp grown in Ferrara, Ascoli Piceno, as well as other cultivation centers in Romagna.^[23]

In the territory of Bologna, which firmly returned under Papal rule in the early 16th century, the cultivation of cannabis increased significantly between the 14th and 17th centuries, with the development of new production techniques that remained in use until the 19th century.

industrial sector.^[74]

Dew retting and water retting

During the Middle Ages, the use of hemp fiber in the

aerial photos, which resulted in an average density of 0.72 tanks/km² (1.86 tanks/sq mi).^[86]

In the areas around Foligno and Ascoli Piceno,

urban centers; while several other laws regulated the production of hemp fiber and ropes, to ensure high-quality products.^[67]

In the bassa Padana (i.e. the lower Po river valley), the maceration tanks were often excavated in the most depressed areas of the farms, in order to facilitate the

refuge for reptiles and amphibians in 2012, in order to increase the local biodiversity.^[89]

Cannabis consumption

Between the 16th and 18th centuries, several

Perugian physician and botanist Castore Durante in his Herbario Novo, a compendium on medicinal plants from Europe, the East Indies, and the West Indies.^[91]

In regard to the recreational use of cannabis, it has been suggested that

black masses.^[92] However, neither the plant nor its use appear to be explicitly mentioned in either the 1484 bull or the Malleus Maleficarum, a 1486 treatise on the prosecution of witches, in which the papal bull appears as a preface.^[93] Nevertheless, as the bull specifically mentions people falling prey to incantations, spells, conjurations, and other accursed charms and crafts, recreational cannabis could have still been banned possibly due to its mind-altering effects being seen at the time either as the external action of supernatural entities, or as a sign of spiritual corruption.^[92][93] To the present day, the Catechism of the Catholic Church considers the use of drugs outside of strictly therapeutic purposes as a grave offense in violation of the Fifth Commandment, since they inflict grave damage on human health and life.^[94] Moreover, the illegal production and trafficking of drugs are considered to be a direct co-operation in evil, since they encourage people to practices gravely contrary to the moral law.^[94]

Republic of Genoa

In Europa altra carta non s'adopra che quella de' Genovesi.
Note. Citation attributed to late 16th century merchants, meaning In Europe no other paper is used than that of the Genoese.^[96]

The production of paper in the Republic of Genoa began around the 15th century along the Leira river valley, which was favored by the presence of several torrents that could provide power to the numerous paper mills.^[96] During the 16th century, the areas of Voltri and Mele in particular, situated along the river to the west of Genoa, became well renowned internationally for the quality and durability of their bookworm-resistant paper, which was particularly sought-after by the Royal Chanceries of Spain, Portugal, and England.^[96][97] Furthermore, Genoa reportedly became the main hub in Europe for paper production between the 16th and 18th centuries, as attested by the presence of around 100 paper mills in its territories by the 1700s.^[96]

For several centuries, the sheets of paper were individually produced from rags made from textile fibers such as hemp, flax, and cotton;

post-war period, almost all of the 43 remaining paper mills along the Leira river valley closed down within a couple of decades, with only two currently remaining in the comune of Mele.^[96] One of the two factories utilizes machinery for industrial production,^[99][e] while the other still applies traditional techniques as part of the Paper Museum of Mele.^[95][96]

Duchy of Milan

One of the oldest trade guilds in the

Joseph II, on 4 March 1787.^[100]

Hemp rope production

A renowned historical center for the production of hemp ropes in the Duchy of Milan was in the village of Castelponzone, which is now a frazione of the comune of Scandolara Ravara.^[101] As attested by its name, the fortified medieval hamlet was strongly connected to the Ponzone family, ever since Ponzino Ponzone acquired it and reconstructed the pre-existing local stronghold in the early 14th century; and its importance grew after Duke Filippo Maria Visconti granted the land as a fief to Galeazzo Ponzone in 1416.^[101] Afterwards, the Counts hired ropemakers from Tuscany to train local workers, and their trade became the main productive activity of the area for centuries, using hemp grown in the local fields in a traditional process that involved both adults and children.^[101] Over time, the locally produced ropes were exported to Russia, France, Spain, and Germany; for instance, anecdotal accounts from locals report on an order from the Imperial Russian Navy that required the combined effort of twelve ropemakers to fulfill, and included the production of a 120 m (390 ft) long and 400 kg (880 lb) heavy rope.^[101]

The production of hemp ropes remained high throughout the 19th century, albeit with alternating phases, and then began to decline during the 20th century due to the reduced demand caused by the expansion of

seafaring.^[101]

Cannabis consumption

In 2023, researchers from the

Modern Age, both in Italy and in Europe.^[102]

The biological samples were recovered from the

cannabinoids include recreational use, self-medication, administration by doctors in other medical facilities, as well as occupational and involuntary exposure.^[102]

Grand Duchy of Tuscany

So di che poco canape s'allaccia

Un'anima gentil, quand'ella è sola,

E non è chi per lei difesa faccia.

Note. Tercet from the Triumph of Love by Petrarch, on how easily a lonely soul can be conquered, meaning I know how little hemp can bind : A gentle soul, when she's alone, : And no one is there to defend her.^[13][103]

In

Reggian poet Ludovico Ariosto; as well as translated works, such as the Ancient greek Oppian poem On fishing and hunting, as translated and illustrated by Florentine naturalist and classicist Anton Maria Salvini in the 17th century.^[13]

Further references to the processing of hemp can be found in the

Se il fil di canapa è marcio, non s'avrà mai corda buona.
Note. Excerpt written by

Piedmontese-Italian statesman Massimo d'Azeglio meaning If the hemp thread is rotten, you will never have a good rope, as part of a larger statement on the need to improve the individual to build a better nation.^[106]

When hemp is spun, England is done.[g]
Note. Old English proverb on England's historical heavy reliance on hemp for its naval strength.^[114][115]

The reputation of Italian hemp well preceded the unification of the country in 1861; namely, its higher quality, durability, and strength had already been noted during its first introduction into the

La canapa sta meglio addosso che intorno al collo.
Note.

capital offences, meaning Hemp looks better on you than around your neck.^[127]

Ye hae a streak o' carl hemp in you.
Note. Old common Scottish saying denoting firmness of mind, with carl-hemp being the largest stalk of female hemp plants.^[132]

Hemp fiber produced in Italy has also been used for several

At the same time, the SMS Gazelle was sent by the Imperial German Navy in 1874 on a two-year voyage, charged with carrying to the Kerguelen Islands one of the several German scientific expeditions that were sent to different sites around the world, to observe the transit of Venus on 9 December 1874; as well as with promoting oceanography and conducting physical and oceanographic research in the maritime sciences.^[138] For the latter purpose, the ship used 1 in (2.54 cm) thick, three-strand cable lay,^[h] sounding lines that were produced by the Chatham shipyard by twisting 27 yarns of Italian hemp, for a total length of 10,000 fathoms (11.4 mi; 18.3 km).^[138] Despite having an estimated breaking load of 792 kg (1,746 lb) when dry and 702 kg (1,548 lb) when wet, these lines never broke during the voyage and they were used exclusively for deep-sea explorations.^[138]

In addition to

Disse la canapa al lino: tu ti rompi e io m'affino.
Note. Proverb on the durability of hemp, meaning Said the hemp to the flax: you break and I sharpen up.[140]

During the golden age of alpinism, the strength of Italian hemp was also noticed in the context of the development of protection systems for rock climbing and mountaineering.^[141] Also known as canaponi, hemp ropes in the mountain regions were not initially meant for climbing, considering their overall weight (especially when wet) and rigidity, but rather they were used by shepherds to tie their animals.^[142] In any case, the first hemp climbing ropes were used without harnesses during both ascent and descent, while the belaying consisted of simply passing the rope around the body, with appropriate vests being used to reduce both rubbing-related pain and clothes creasing.^[142]

In 1864, a special committee of the

In terms of their weight, the three approved types of rope were considered to be the heaviest ropes that could still be conveniently carried about in the Alps, with the Italian hemp rope weighting 4.5 lb (2.0 kg) per 100 ft (30.5 m), while both the Manila hemp and flax ropes weighted 4.6 lb (2.1 kg) per 100 ft (30.5 m).^[143][144] In regard to their extensibility, no rope with a potential extension lower than 12.5% was considered fit for use in mountaineering, and most Manila ropes were found to extend between 15% and 16% when dry, while the Italian hemp ropes extended somewhat less.^[144] Finally, among the identified advantages in using Italian hemp, the committee found that the rope was both harder and less bulky with respect to the other two, and therefore it was reckoned that it would probably wear best, while being the least likely to cut against rocks.^[143] On the other hand, among the disadvantages, it was also found that Italian hemp ropes were much more stiff and difficult to untie than the others, and that they were very difficult to handle when wet, as they tended to kink.^[143] Nevertheless, any kind of waterproofing was reported to be highly damaging to both hemp and flax; moreover, every knot tied along the ropes was found to cumulatively weaken them and thus constituted a potential breaking point, so much so that none of the approved ropes types could pass the second one of the two previously mentioned tensile tests, if they presented a knot.^[143]

A notable example of the use of Italian hemp ropes in mountaineering is the first technical climb of the

A notable example of the use of Italian hemp ropes in early aeronautics was during the ill-fated three-men Arctic balloon expedition of 1897, led by Swedish engineer and aeronaut Salomon August Andrée, which unsuccessfully attempted to reach the North Pole on board the polar balloon Örnen (i.e. The Eagle).^[148] The hydrogen balloon itself had a volume of 170,000 cu ft (4,814 m³), while a total of 15 mi (24 km) of Italian hemp ropes made up the overlaid net, which supported the large gondola at the bottom through the 48 carrying lines that were attached to the carrying-ring.^[148][149] In addition, the net had been soaked in acid-free vaseline, to prevent it from absorbing water during the voyage.^[149]

Kingdom of Italy

Medical use of cannabis

Bergamo Provincial Gazette – January 22, 1881 – p. 4

At the TERNI Pharmacy in the Sentierone street – ASTHMA – Cannabis Indica INDIAN CIGARETTES – by Grimault & Co.

It is enough to

respiratory airways

.

Stocks in Milan, A. Manzoni & Co., via della Sala, n. 14–16.

Note. English translation of the advert shown on the right, which inaccurately promotes cannabis cigarettes as a remedy for several ailments.

In the

On 26 January 1860, a Medical Commission delegated with the study of

The use of hashish as a remedy for rabies had been suggested to the commission by Dr. Giovanni Polli, at the time a

nervous diseases.^{[161][162][163]}

Hemp fever

Similarly to the reports heard by Dr. Valieri regarding the hemp fields in Casoria, the Medical-Surgical Society of Bologna was notified of a comparable condition, initially designated as summer fever due to its periodical occurrence, that affected especially young people and outdoor workers in the late 1800s.

body temperature, sometimes surpassing 40 °C (104 °F), at the end of which the fever spontaneously remissed.^[164] Even though the condition itself was not severe overall, it regularly affected hundreds of people in the territory of Bologna alone, including a reported 12,000 military personnel over a decade from the local garrison, which at the time averaged 4,000 soldiers in the summer.^[164]

A connection between the observed summer fever and the seasonal hemp pollen was proposed by medical captain Dr. Giuseppe Mendini, who also dismissed the idea that the fever was caused by miasms emanating from organic residue during the 13-day long draining of the local Channel of the Reno for summer maintenance.^[164] The correlation proposed by Dr. Mendini was based on his own studies of the affected patients, which suggested a pollen-related allergy; and on the following circumstantial observations:^[164]

• the annual appearance of the epidemic coincided with the blooming of hemp plants;
• the fever epidemic was stronger during the years that saw the lushest hemp fields, with entire families of farmers being affected;
• the worst cases in a given year similarly occurred in the areas with the lushest fields, due to a higher toxicity of the released pollen;
• as opposed to
  hay fever, which was also known as an aristocratic disease for mainly affecting intellectuals and members of the upper class
  , the hemp fever affected mostly the rural populace, while better-located city dwellers were less impacted;
• soldiers stationed in Bologna who were sent off for military exercises, far from the hemp fields, were not affected by the summer fever;
• during the blooming of hemp, both domestic animals, bovines, and equines showed clear signs of nasal pain; and
• while cases of summer fever had been observed in several Italian cities, the first epidemic occurrence was reported in the major hemp-producing center of Bologna, in 1888.

Among hemp spinning workers, a similar poisoning was observed to affect mainly hemp beaters, and to a lesser extent

sensitivity, reduced tendon reflexes, muscle weakness, lack of genital sensitivity, polyuria, and an altered smell of the urine.^[165] Similarly to other industries, most of these workers also suffered from bronchitis as a result of the dust inhaled during work.^[165]

Early drug prohibition

In the early stages of the international cannabis prohibition, the

North African colonies of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, which were annexed from the Ottoman Empire after the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–1912.^[167]

Even though the 1912 Conference was focused on opium, leading to the first International Opium Convention, the so-called issue of Indian hemp was examined, however nothing substantial came out of it.^[166][167] Instead, the regulation of cannabis came with the Second International Opium Conference, held in Geneva in 1925, at the behest of Egypt, and previous encouragements from South Africa and Italy, among others.^[166] In fact, the use of both marijuana and hashish had already been made illegal in Italy through the passage of the Mussolini-Oviglio Law 396/23, on 18 February 1923.^[168]

In any case, the section of the 1925 Opium Convention dealing with cannabis represented a compromise, in which the signatories were committed to limit exclusively to medical and scientific purposes the manufacture, import, sale, distribution, export and use of extracts and tinctures of Indian hemp.^[166][169] The final document did not constitute an absolute prohibition, since it only dealt with the international trade of cannabis, while it neither prohibited its production, imposed controls on domestic traffic or consumption, nor mandated government production estimates.^[166] In fact, the compromise changed the language that was used in the proposed first draft, which incurred the objections of countries like India, where weaker cannabis-based preparations often accompanied social events, religious ceremonies, and festivals, even though the more potent hashish was generally frowned upon.^[166] In regard to the matter, the United Kingdom remained ambivalent, while the United States remained focused on opium.^[166]

Italian hemp trade

Hemp has been placed on the

emancipate us as much as possible from the burdensome tribute we still provide abroad in the textile fiber sector. It is not only the agricultural-economic side that interests us, but also the social side, whose impact could not be better highlighted than by the following figure: 30,000 workers employed by the Italian hemp industry.^[i]

Note. Excerpt translated from a speech by Italian dictator and journalist

Fascist regime, in the context of the contemporary negative balance of trade for textiles.^[170]

In 1873, several private businesses in Italy

merchant vessels were transitioning from sailing ships to steamships.^[173] In any case, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) compiled a report on the worldwide production of hemp in 1914, citing Italy as one of the main producer of hemp fiber for export, together with Russia, Hungary, and Romania.^[174] In fact, the yearly average estimates for the five years between 1909 and 1913 reported 80,902 ha (809 km²; 312 sq mi) of farm land in Italy being occupied by hemp fields, producing 83,500 t of hemp fiber, compared to a yearly worldwide production ranging between 500,000 and 800,000 t.^[175]

Although not as important as silk, as far as the

warp, for which the American hemp was not well suited.^[174]

In regard to hemp seeds, they were primarily used in Italy for

Russia, although they were considered of low quality,^[177][178] as they began to blossom already in April instead of late July, while the resulting plants were severely limited in height.^[100] Considering the significant damages caused by the imported seeds to large swathes of the Italian hemp fields,^[100] the situation was seen as an opportunity for American hemp farmers to promote their own seeds as a high-quality alternative.^[178] In particular, American exporters were advised to provide guarantees, such as the year in which the seeds were gathered and the assured germination percentage, since it was more or less customary for Italian farmers to delay payment until after germination, and to seek either a discount or a rebate in proportion to the difference between the percentage of germinating seeds and the initial guarantee.^[178]

The main importer of Italian hemp during the 1930s was by far

Italy by the League of Nations in 1935, as a consequence for the Abyssinia Crisis.^[181] As an example, due to the significant difficulties in importing leather under the embargo, the then-emerging luxury fashion house Gucci was forced to develop a new material out of woven hemp sourced from Naples.^[181] In fact, the brand's first commercially successful bags were made from this hemp-based material and featured the now iconic brown-on-tan diamond pattern.^[181]

Industrial hemp cultivation

Mais ce ne sont pas de tiges de chanvre ces-ci, ce sont des arbres!
Note.

Housewives of Carmagnola in 1935.^[182]

In regard to the grown crops, the main varieties of cannabis sativa cultivated in Italy at the time were commonly divided into the Pedemontana and Sinensis denominations, while the cannabis indica varieties were not grown in the country.[183] These cultivars could also be divided into giant hemp plants, which were considered suitable for the production of fiber; and dwarf hemp plants, which were instead considered suitable for the production of seeds, although such distinction was not as clear-cut due to the various factors that could ultimately determine their height.^[183] In any case, the main Italian hemp varieties at the time included:

• the Bologna (a.k.a. great hemp or chanvre de Piedmont in France), cultivated in the provinces of Bologna, Ferrara, and Modena in Emilia-Romagna, and Rovigo in Veneto.
  cross-fertilisation and selection.^[174]
• the Canapa piccola (i.e. small hemp), cultivated in the
  Arno valley in Tuscany, with plants ranging between 4 ft (1.2 m) and 7 ft (2.1 m) in height locally, while ranging between 4 ft (1.2 m) and 6 ft (1.8 m) in height in the test sites.^[174]
• the Neapolitan varieties, cultivated in the area around Naples in Campania, and even on the sides of Mt. Vesuvius, with the large seeded cultivar ranging between 7 ft (2.1 m) and 10 ft (3.0 m) in height in the test sites, while the small seeded cultivar rarely exceeded 4 ft (1.2 m) in height at the same location.[174]
• the Ortichina (i.e. small nettle) varieties, which group together several dwarf cultivars, some of which were exclusively used for the production of seeds in central and southern Italy.^[183] In particular, Frattamaggiore and Aversa were two other noteworthy centers for the cultivation of hemp in Campania.^[184]
• the Canapa gigante (i.e. giant hemp), cultivated in the area around Carmagnola in Piedmont, with plants ranging between 5 m (16.4 ft) and 6 m (19.7 ft) in height, thanks to their significantly reduced
  cross-breeding them with poor-quality foreign hemp seeds.^[34] As an example, anomalous weather conditions in Carmagnola in 1936 caused abnormal height differences even in the best quality giant hemp, in a rare phenomenon that was labelled at the time as climatic dwarfism.^[100]

The average yield in Italy, based on statements of annual average yields for 5 to 10 years, was estimated in 1914 to be equal to 622 lb/acre (697.2 kg/ha) of hemp fiber, which was the second-biggest yield in Europe after France, which produced an average of 662 lb/acre (742.0 kg/ha).^[174] In the 1920s, the average yield in the whole Kingdom was instead reported equal to 1,000 kg/ha (892.2 lb/acre), with peaks of more than 1,200 kg/ha (1,071 lb/acre) in the major production centers.^[175]

In the 1940s, Italy was believed to be the second-biggest producer of

Par vedar un bel canvil, semna in avril.
Note. Emilian proverb on growing hemp, meaning To see a good hemp field, sow in April.^[189]

In terms of the contemporary

La canapa che l’uccello non becca, serve per fare il suo laccio.
Note. Proverb on dealing early with problems, meaning The hemp that the bird doesn't peck, is used to make its snare.^[127]

Besides the need of deep, soft, moist, and deeply worked soil that is rich in organic matter, several other factors were identified that could affect both the quality and the quantity of the produced hemp fiber:^[175]

• During the sowing, in March, farmers had to take into account the quality of the soil, the amount of fertilizer used, and the desired fiber qualities. In particular, densely planted seeds would produce taller and less-ramified plants, resulting in a long, fine, and delicate fiber, while sparser seeds would produce a coarser and more resistant one.
• During the harvest, between the end of July and the beginning of August, the maturity of the hemp plants had to be carefully assessed, since a difference of a few days could have significant effects. In particular, a premature harvest would produce a paler, less resistant fiber, and also in smaller quantities, while a late harvest would return a thicker, darker, rougher fiber, which was also more labor-intensive to extract. According to
  historical memory accounts from Emilia-Romagna, for instance, the harvest there generally started on 6 August, when the hemp plants reached the breadth of a finger and a height equal to around 3 m (9.84 ft).^[194]
• During the water retting, farmers used their experience and knowledge to determine its duration, which ranged between four and ten days, depending on factors like the water temperature and quality, as well as the particular hemp variety used. Moreover, the quality of the water within the open-air retting tanks was greatly affected by adverse weather, as well as the consecutive rettings of multiple stocks. Furthermore, the possible mishandling of the hemp stalks during this difficult process could also damage the fiber.
• After the retting, the numerous sheaves were each untied at one end and the stalks were then left to dry in the open in cone-shaped stacks. In case of fair weather, the hemp would acquire a good, bright color between blond and light silver, while rain would prevent the hemp from properly drying, and make it lose color and brightness. Moreover, the mud at the feet of the stalks would cause irregular hues, while the dripping rainwater would affect the divisibility of the fiber, and therefore its fineness, elasticity, and its ability to be spun. These risks were significant, since the twice or thrice-repeated retting could extend the process to a few weeks, thus increasing the probability of bad weather.

In the mountainous regions, the irregular terrains prevented the hemp plants from being cultivated and processed on an industrial scale, mainly due to the fragmentation of the fields both in terms of ownership and proximity, to the higher production costs related to the more rudimental techniques used, and to the generally lower quality of the produced fibers, with respect to the ones from the plains.

The average retting tanks consisted of artificial, water-filled, rectangular basins of variable depths, although they were not usually deeper than 2 m (6.56 ft).

• 
  Hemp sheaves being stacked into rafts for the maceration process in Indre-et-Loire in 1959.
• 
  Hemp rafts being weighed down using heavy stones in 1950.
• 
  Maceration of hemp in 1950.
• 
  Macerated hemp sheaves being taken out of the retting tanks near Ferrara in 1950.
• 
  Macerated hemp sheaves being taken out to be dried near Ferrara in 1950.
• 
  Drying macerated hemp stalks in Frattamaggiore in 1930.
• 
  Manual breaking of hemp stalks in Val Camonica in 1950.
• 
  Manual breaking of hemp stalks in Schilpario in 1950.
• 
  Bundling hemp fiber in 1950.

Republic of Italy

The choice of Rome as the seat of this Congress underlines the importance in Europe of Italian hemp, renowned for centuries for its quality, a heritage maintained and developed by the patient effort of generations of growers and industrialists. But the time is no longer when sons could calmly continue the work of their fathers without worrying about the vicissitudes of the international market. Competition from other natural or artificial textile fibers, the development of the mechanical industry, the internal legislation of each country and that of other nations constitute all factors which considerably influence the interests of your Confederation.
Note. Excerpt translated from a speech by Pope Pius XII, addressing the participants of the Fifth International Assembly on Flax and Hemp, on 4 October 1954.^[232]

The decline of hemp production in

Canape cresce dappertutto, ma la Canape à vendere ne in cielo, ne in terra, ma nel letame.
Note. Old common

Romagnol saying on the need for fertilizers to obtain high-quality hemp, meaning Hemp grows everywhere, but hemp fit for sale [grows] neither in heaven, nor in earth, rather in manure.^[118]

Tutto di canapa mi voglio vestire.
Note. Quotation attributed to Italian performer Totò, meaning I want to dress all in hemp.^[235]

In the 1950s, while the Soviet Union remained the biggest producer of hemp in the world, Italy was overtaken by

Global exports of hemp fiber were also declining, namely dropping by 46% from an average of 70,000 t between 1948 and 1952, to 38,000 t in 1958.[217] In particular, Italy was the biggest exporter between 1948 and 1952 with 22,000 t of fiber and 9,000 t of tow, followed by India with 22,000 t of fiber, and then by Yugoslavia with 5,000 t of fiber and 7,000 t of tow; however, India was the biggest exporter in 1958 with 11,200 t of fiber, followed by Yugoslavia with 10,600 t, and then by Italy with 10,300 t.^[217] The main importers of Italian hemp were West Germany, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia, France, Austria, and the United Kingdom, while Italy started importing hemp mainly from Yugoslavia and India.^[217]

In 1973, Italy was the biggest importer with 8,238 t, which accounted for 25.8% of the global demand, while no significant export was reported, considering that the total cultivation area was reduced to just 270 ha (2.70 km²; 1.04 sq mi), producing 300 t of fiber.^[225] The decline of hemp production in Italy was more pronounced in the North, while it was slower in the South, but it was nevertheless irreversible.^[217] In particular, Campania accounted for 77% of the national cultivation area in 1958, followed at a significant distance by Emilia-Romagna and Piedmont, with the latter being noteworthy primarily for the production of hemp seeds rather than fiber.^[217] The cultivation of hemp was prohibited in Italy by 1980, with the exception of very few and strictly controlled cases, which caused the germplasm of some old Italian varieties to be lost, and the development of new machinery for the cultivation and processing of hemp to be abandoned.^[236] In 1991, Italy was still reported as the biggest importer of hemp, while the national production completely ceased by that time.^[228] Similarly, world production continued to decline, with the total cultivation area reduced to 330,000 ha (3,300 km²; 1,274 sq mi), while India and China both surpassed the Soviet Union, which was still a major producer nonetheless, to contend for the position of biggest producer.^[228]

Drug prohibition

The Law 685/75 introduced the concept of modest quantity to distinguish those who merely

In 2006, the controversial

gross weight of about 5 g, or about 15–20 joints.^[237]

Since 2014, the main legislation regarding narcotics is the

decriminalized and subjected to fines and the confiscation of personal documents like passports and driver's licenses, while its unlicensed cultivation and sale are still illegal, and punishable with a prison sentence between 2 and 6 years, as well as a fine between €26,000 (29,000 US$) and €260,000 (290,000 US$).^[246][247]

EU regulations and incentives

Further information: Cannabis in Italy § Recent developments

Despite renewed interest in hemp cultivation from the early 1990s onwards, when it started being promoted throughout the European Union, industrial cannabis remained a

shut down.^[108]

Furthermore, following the cessation of hemp production in Italy, concerns were raised in the

In regard to Italy, among the problems faced by Italian farmers at the time was the difficulty in finding the appropriate hemp varieties and growing techniques for the local terrains, considering that the almost complete disappearance of the old Italian varieties prompted the farmers to rely on seeds imported from France.[236] Moreover, to qualify for EU grants, the grown plants needed to have a THC content at most equal to 0.2%, which could be difficult to achieve, especially when the plants are allowed to grow until the seeding stage.^[236] Furthermore, to make the operation commercially viable, farmers and technicians had to determine the properties of the different sections of the hemp plants; develop effective mechanical processes to clean and separate the various parts of the stem; and assess the quality of the produced fiber, when compared to the readily available French varieties, especially in regard to their most valuable applications in the textile market.^[236]

In 2014, Italian hemp varieties were tested as potential candidates for the possible

• Cannabis in Italy
• History of cannabis
• History of medical cannabis
• Timeline of cannabis law

Footnotes