Cockroach
Cockroach Temporal range: Cretaceous–recent
| |
---|---|
Common household cockroaches A) German cockroach B) American cockroach C) Australian cockroach D&E) Oriental cockroach (♀ & ♂) | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Arthropoda |
Class: | Insecta |
Superorder: | Dictyoptera |
Order: | Blattodea |
Families | |
Anaplectidae Cryptocercidae Ectobiidae Lamproblattidae Nocticolidae Tryonicidae |
Cockroaches (or roaches
The cockroaches are an ancient group, with their ancestors, known as "roachoids", originating during the Carboniferous period, some 320 million years ago. Those early ancestors, however, lacked the internal ovipositors of modern roaches. Cockroaches are somewhat generalized insects lacking special adaptations (such as the sucking mouthparts of aphids and other true bugs); they have chewing mouthparts and are probably among the most primitive of living Neopteran insects. They are common and hardy insects capable of tolerating a wide range of climates, from Arctic cold to tropical heat. Tropical cockroaches are often much larger than temperate species.
Modern cockroaches are not considered to be a
Some species, such as the gregarious
Taxonomy and evolution
Cockroaches are members of the superorder
Historically, the name Blattaria was used largely interchangeably with the name Blattodea, but whilst Blattaria was used to refer to 'true' cockroaches exclusively, the Blattodea also includes the termites. The current catalogue of world cockroach species uses the name Blattodea for the group.
The earliest cockroach-like fossils ("blattopterans" or "
The evolutionary relationships of the Blattodea (cockroaches and termites) shown in the cladogram are based on Inward, Beccaloni and Eggleton (2007).[16] The cockroach families Anaplectidae, Lamproblattidae, and Tryonicidae are not shown but are placed within the superfamily Blattoidea. The cockroach families Corydiidae and Ectobiidae were previously known as the Polyphagidae and Blattellidae.[17]
Dictyoptera |
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Termites were previously regarded as a separate order
Description
Most species of cockroach are about the size of a thumbnail, but several species are notably larger. The world's heaviest cockroach is the Australian giant burrowing cockroach Macropanesthia rhinoceros, which can reach 8 centimetres (3 in) in length and weigh up to 35 grams (1.2 oz).[22] Comparable in size is the Central American giant cockroach Blaberus giganteus.[23] The longest cockroach species is Megaloblatta longipennis, which can reach 97 mm (3+7⁄8 in) in length and 45 mm (1+3⁄4 in) across.[24] A Central and South American species, Megaloblatta blaberoides, has the largest wingspan of up to 185 mm (7+1⁄4 in).[25] At the other end of the size scale, Attaphila cockroaches that live with leaf-cutter ants include some of the world's smallest species, growing to about 3.5 mm in length.[26]
Cockroaches are generalized insects with few special adaptations, and may be among the most
The body is divided into a
The three pairs of legs are sturdy, with large coxae and five claws each.[28] They are attached to each of the three thoracic segments. Of these, the front legs are the shortest and the hind legs the longest, providing the main propulsive power when the insect runs.[27] The spines on the legs were earlier considered to be sensory, but observations of the insect's gait on sand and wire meshes have demonstrated that they help in locomotion on difficult terrain. The structures have been used as inspiration for robotic legs.[29][30]
The abdomen has ten segments, each having a pair of spiracles for respiration. In addition to the spiracles, the final segment consists of a pair of cerci, a pair of anal styles, the anus and the external genitalia. Males have an aedeagus through which they secrete sperm during copulation, while females have spermatheca for storing sperm and an ovipositor through which the oothecae are laid.[27]
Distribution and habitat
Cockroaches are abundant throughout the world and live in a wide range of environments, especially in the tropics and subtropics.[31] Cockroaches can withstand extremely low temperatures, allowing them to live in the Arctic. Some species are capable of surviving temperatures of −122 °C (−188 °F) by manufacturing an antifreeze made out of glycerol.[32] In North America, 50 species separated into five families are found throughout the continent.[31] 450 species are found in Australia.[33] Only about four widespread species are commonly regarded as pests.[34][35]
Cockroaches occupy a wide range of habitats. Many live in
Behavior
Cockroaches are social insects; a large number of species are either
Daily rhythms may also be regulated by a complex set of hormonal controls of which only a small subset have been understood. In 2005, the role of one of these proteins, pigment dispersing factor (PDF), was isolated and found to be a key mediator in the circadian rhythms of the cockroach.[39]
Pest species adapt readily to a variety of environments, but prefer warm conditions found within buildings. Many tropical species prefer even warmer environments. Cockroaches are mainly
Collective decision-making
Gregarious cockroaches display collective decision-making when choosing food sources. When a sufficient number of individuals (a "quorum") exploits a food source, this signals to newcomer cockroaches that they should stay there longer rather than leave for elsewhere.[42] Other mathematical models have been developed to explain aggregation dynamics and conspecific recognition.[43][44][45]
Cooperation and competition are balanced in cockroach group decision-making behavior.[38]
Cockroaches appear to use just two pieces of information to decide where to go, namely how dark it is and how many other cockroaches there are. A study used specially scented roach-sized robots that seem real to the roaches to demonstrate that once there are enough insects in a place to form a critical mass, the roaches accepted the collective decision on where to hide, even if this was an unusually lit place.[46]
Social behavior
When reared in isolation, German cockroaches show behavior that is different from behavior when reared in a group. In one study, isolated cockroaches were less likely to leave their shelters and explore, spent less time eating, interacted less with conspecifics when exposed to them, and, among males, took longer to recognize receptive females. Because these changes occurred in many contexts, the authors suggested them as constituting a behavioral syndrome. These effects might have been due either to reduced metabolic and developmental rates in isolated individuals or the fact that the isolated individuals had not had a training period to learn about what others were like via their antennae.[47]
Individual American cockroaches appear to have consistently different "personalities" regarding how they seek shelter. In addition, group personality is not simply the sum of individual choices, but reflects conformity and collective decision-making.[48][49]
The gregarious German and American cockroaches have elaborate social structure, chemical signaling, and "social herd" characteristics. Lihoreau and his fellow researchers stated:[38]
The social biology of domiciliary cockroaches ... can be characterized by a common shelter, overlapping generations, non-closure of groups, equal reproductive potential of group members, an absence of task specialization, high levels of social dependence, central place foraging, social information transfer, kin recognition, and a meta-population structure.[38]
There is evidence that a few species of group-living roaches in the genera Melyroidea and Aclavoidea may exhibit a reproductive division of labor, which, if confirmed, would make these the only genuinely eusocial lineage known among roaches, in contrast to the subsocial members of the genus Cryptocercus.[50]
Sounds
Some species make a buzzing noise while other cockroaches make a chirping noise. Gromphadorhina species and Archiblatta hoeveni produce sound through the modified spiracles on the fourth abdominal segment. In the former species, several different hisses are produced, including disturbance sounds, produced by adults and larger nymphs; and aggressive, courtship and copulatory sounds produced by adult males.[51] Henschoutedenia epilamproides has a stridulatory organ between its thorax and abdomen, but the purpose of the sound produced is unclear.[52]
Several Australian species practice acoustic and vibration behaviour as an aspect of courtship. They have been observed producing hisses and whistles from air forced through the spiracles. Furthermore, in the presence of a potential mate, some cockroaches tap the substrate in a rhythmic, repetitive manner. Acoustic signals may be of greater prevalence amongst perching species, particularly those that live on low vegetation in Australia's tropics.[53]
Biology
Digestive tract
Cockroaches are generally omnivorous; the American cockroach (Periplaneta americana), for example, feeds on a great variety of foodstuffs including bread, fruit, leather, starch in book bindings, paper, glue, skin flakes, hair, dead insects and soiled clothing.[54] Many species of cockroach harbor in their gut symbiotic protozoans and bacteria which are able to digest cellulose. In many species, these symbionts may be essential if the insect is to utilize cellulose; however, some species secrete cellulase in their saliva, and the wood-eating cockroach, Panesthia cribrata, is able to survive indefinitely on a diet of crystallized cellulose while being free of microorganisms.[55]
The similarity of these symbionts in the genus
Tracheae and breathing
Like other insects, cockroaches breathe through a system of tubes called
While cockroaches do not have lungs as do vertebrates, and can continue to respire if their heads are removed, in some very large species, the body musculature may contract rhythmically to forcibly move air in and out of the spiracles; this may be considered a form of breathing.[60]
Reproduction
Cockroaches use pheromones to attract mates, and the males practice courtship rituals, such as posturing and stridulation. Like many insects, cockroaches mate facing away from each other with their genitalia in contact, and copulation can be prolonged. A few species are known to be parthenogenetic, reproducing without the need for males.[28]
Female cockroaches are sometimes seen carrying egg cases on the end of their abdomens; the German cockroach holds about 30 to 40 long, thin eggs in a case called an
The female usually attaches the egg case to a substrate, inserts it into a suitably protective crevice, or carries it about until just before the eggs hatch. Some species, however, are
Cockroaches have
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3 millimeter cockroach nymph
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FemalePeriplaneta fuliginosa with ootheca
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Captured adult and baby roaches around ootheca
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Empty ootheca
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American cockroach oothecae
Parthenogenesis
When female American cockroaches (Periplaneta americana) are housed in groups, this close association promotes parthenogenic reproduction.[61] Oothecae, a type of egg mass, are produced asexually.[61] The parthenogenetic process by which eggs are produced in P. americana is automixis.[62] During automixis, meiosis occurs, but instead of giving rise to haploid gametes as ordinarily occurs, diploid gametes are produced (probably by terminal fusion) that can then develop into female cockroaches.
Hardiness
Cockroaches are among the hardiest insects. Some species are capable of remaining active for a month without food and are able to survive on limited resources, such as the glue from the back of postage stamps.
Experiments on decapitated specimens of several species of cockroach found a variety of behavioral functionality remained, including shock avoidance and escape behavior, although many insects other than cockroaches are also able to survive decapitation, and popular claims of the longevity of headless cockroaches do not appear to be based on published research.[65][66] The severed head is able to survive and wave its antennae for several hours, or longer when refrigerated and given nutrients.[66]
It is popularly suggested that cockroaches will "inherit the earth" if humanity destroys itself in a nuclear war. While cockroaches do, indeed, have a much higher radiation resistance than vertebrates, with a lethal dose perhaps six to 15 times that for humans, they are not exceptionally radiation-resistant compared to other insects, such as the fruit fly.[67]
The cockroach's ability to withstand radiation has been explained through the cell cycle. Cells are most vulnerable to the effects of radiation while they are dividing. A cockroach's cells divide only once each molting cycle (which is weekly, for the juvenile German cockroach[68]). Since not all cockroaches would be molting at the same time, many would be unaffected by an acute burst of radiation, although lingering and more[clarification needed] acute radiation would still be harmful.[60]
Relationship with humans
In research and education
Because of their ease of rearing and resilience, cockroaches have been used as insect models in the laboratory, particularly in the fields of
As pests
The Blattodea include some thirty species of cockroaches associated with humans; these species are atypical of the thousands of species in the order.
Control
Many remedies have been tried in the search for control of the major pest species of cockroaches, which are resilient and fast-breeding. Household chemicals like
Some parasites and predators are effective for
Cockroaches can be trapped in a deep, smooth-walled jar baited with food inside, placed so that cockroaches can reach the opening, for example with a ramp of card or twigs on the outside. An inch or so of water or stale beer (by itself a cockroach attractant) in the jar can be used to drown any insects thus captured. The method works well with the American cockroach, but less so with the German cockroach.[95]
A study conducted by scientists at Purdue University concluded that the most common cockroaches in the US, Australia and Europe were able to develop a “cross resistance” to multiple types of pesticide. This contradicted previous understanding that the animals can develop resistance against one pesticide at a time.[96] The scientists suggested that cockroaches will no longer be easily controlled using a diverse spectrum of chemical pesticides and that a mix of other means, such as traps and better sanitation, will need to be employed.[96]
Researchers from Heriot-Watt University demonstrated that a power laser can, with high effectiveness, neutralise cockroaches in a home, and suggest it might be an alternative to pesticides.[97]
As food
Although considered disgusting in Western culture, cockroaches are eaten in many places around the world.[98][99] Whereas household pest cockroaches may carry bacteria and viruses, cockroaches bred under laboratory conditions can be used to prepare nutritious food.[100] In Thailand and Mexico, the heads and legs are removed, and the remainder may be boiled, sautéed, grilled, dried or diced.[98] Frying makes the insect crispy with soft innards that taste like cottage cheese.[101][102] Recipes from Taiwan also call for its use in omelets.[103][104] It can be a feeder insect for pet reptiles.[104]
Medicinal use
Cockroaches are raised in large quantities in China for the production of traditional medicine and cosmetics.[105] There are about 100 cockroach farms in the country. Running a farm involves relatively low starting and operating costs due to how hardy and easy to process the insects are. Chinese and South Korean researchers are investigating cockroaches for treating baldness, AIDS, cancer, and as a dietary supplement.[106][107]
Conservation
While a small minority of cockroaches are associated with human habitats and viewed as repugnant by many people, a few species are of conservation concern. The Lord Howe Island wood-feeding cockroach (
Cultural depictions
Cockroaches were known and considered repellent but medicinally useful in
Lafcadio Hearn (1850–1904) asserted that "For tetanus cockroach tea is given. I do not know how many cockroaches go to make up the cup; but I find that faith in this remedy is strong among many of the American population of New Orleans. A poultice of boiled cockroaches is placed over the wound." He adds that cockroaches are eaten, fried with garlic, for indigestion.[115]
Several cockroach species, such as Blaptica dubia, are raised as food for insectivorous pets.[116] A few cockroach species are raised as pets, most commonly the giant Madagascar hissing cockroach, Gromphadorhina portentosa.[117] Whilst the hissing cockroaches may be the most commonly kept species, there are many species that are kept by cockroach enthusiasts; there is even a specialist society: the Blattodea Culture Group (BCG), which was a thriving organisation for about 15 years although now appears to be dormant.[118] The BCG provided a source of literature for people interested in rearing cockroaches, which was otherwise limited to either scientific papers, general insect books, or books covering a variety of exotic pets; in the absence of an inclusive book, one member published Introduction to Rearing Cockroaches, which still appears to be the only book dedicated to rearing cockroaches.[119]
Cockroaches have been used for space tests. A cockroach given the name Nadezhda was sent into space by Russian scientists as part of a Foton-M mission, during which she mated, and later became the first terrestrial animal to produce offspring that had been conceived in space.[120]
Because of their long association with humans, cockroaches are frequently referred to in popular culture. In Western culture, cockroaches are often depicted as dirty pests.[121][122] In a 1750–1752 journal, Pehr Osbeck noted that cockroaches were frequently seen and found their way to the bakeries, after the sailing ship Gothenburg ran aground and was destroyed by rocks.[123]
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{{cite journal}}
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I am a survivor. I am like a cockroach, you just can't get rid of me
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External links
- Cockroach Species File Online world catalogue of cockroaches.
- Cockroaches chapter in United States Environmental Protection Agency and UF/IFAS National Public Health Pesticide Applicator Training Manual
- Cockroach Studies journal Archived 2015-11-23 at the Wayback Machine (ISSN 1862-6491)