Goa Inquisition
Portuguese Inquisition in Goa Inquisição de Goa Goa Inquisition | |
---|---|
Type | |
Type | Part of the Portuguese Inquisition |
History | |
Established | 1561 |
Disbanded | 1812 |
Meeting place | |
Portuguese India |
The Goa Inquisition (
The inquisition primarily focused on the
The inquisition was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774 to 1778, continued thereafter until it was finally abolished in 1812.
The aims of the Portuguese Empire in Asia were
Between the Inquisition's beginning in 1561 and its temporary abolition in 1774, around 16,000 persons were charged. Most of the Goa Inquisition's records were burned by the Portuguese when the Inquisition was abolished in 1812.[11] It is therefore impossible to know the exact number of those put on trial and the punishments that they were given.[2] The few records that have survived suggest that at least 57 were executed for religious crimes, and another 64 were burned in effigy because they had already died in jail before sentencing.[18][19]
It is estimated that by the end of the 17th century, the
In Goa, the Inquisition also prosecuted violators observing
Background
The Inquisition in Portugal
These ideas and the practice of Inquisition on behalf of the Holy Office of Catholic Church was spread by the missionaries and colonial administrators of Portugal to Portuguese colonies such as Estado da India.[7][30] One of the most notable New Christians was Garcia de Orta, who emigrated to Goa in 1534. He was posthumously convicted of Judaism.[29] The Goa Inquisition enforced by the Portuguese Christians was not unusual, as similar tribunals operated in South American colonies during the same centuries such as the Lima Inquisition and the Brazil Inquisition under the Lisbon tribunal. Like the Goa Inquisition, these tribunals arrested suspects, interrogated and convicted them, and issued punishments for secretly practising religious beliefs different from Christianity.[31][28]
Portuguese arrival and conquest
After da Gama's return, Portugal sent an armed fleet to conquer and create a colony in India. In 1510, the Portuguese Admiral
Introduction of the Inquisition to India
After da Gama returned to Portugal from his maiden voyage to India, Pope Nicholas V issued the Papal bull Romanus Pontifex. This granted a padroado from the Holy See, giving Portugal the responsibility, monopoly right and patronage for the propagation of the Catholic Christian faith in newly discovered areas, along with exclusive rights to trade in Asia on behalf of the Catholic Empire.[34][35][36] From 1515 onwards, Goa served as the centre of missionary efforts under Portugal's royal patronage (Padroado) to expand Catholic Christianity in Asia.[35][note 1] Similar padroados were also issued by the Vatican in the favour of Spain and Portugal in South America in the 16th century. The padroado mandated the building of churches and support for Catholic missions and evangelism activities in the new lands, and brought these under the religious jurisdiction of the Vatican. The Jesuits were the most active of the religious orders in Europe that participated under the padroado mandate in the 16th and 17th centuries.[39][note 2]
The establishment of the Portuguese on the Western coast of India was of particular interest to the
Portugal also sent missionaries to Goa, and its colonial government supported the Christian mission with incentives for baptizing
The surviving records of missionaries from 16th to 17th century, states Délio de Mendonça, extensively stereotypes and criticizes the gentiles, a term that broadly referred to Hindus.[46] To European missionaries, the Gentiles of India that were not outright hostile were superstitious, weak and greedy.[46] One missionary claimed that Indians converted to Christianity for material benefits such as jobs or clothing gifts; freedom in the case of slaves kept by the Hindus and Muslims; and marriage to Christian women in the case of unmarried non-Christian men. After baptism, these new converts continued to practice their old religion in secret in the manner similar to Crypto-Jews who had been forcibly converted to Christianity in Portugal earlier. Jesuit missionaries considered this a threat to the purity of Catholic Christian belief and pressed for Inquisition in order to punish the Crypto-Hindus, Crypto-Muslims and Crypto-Jews, thereby ending the heresy.[46]
The Goa Inquisition adapted the directives issued between 1545 and 1563 by the
Controversy regarding Saint Francis Xavier's involvement
Saint Francis Xavier led an extensive mission into Asia, mainly the
"By another route I have written to your highness of the great need there is in India for preachers... The second necessity which obtains in India, if those who live there are to be good Christians, is that your highness should institute the holy Inquisition; for there are many who live according to the law of Moses or the law of Muhammad without any fear of God or shame before men" [48][49][50][51]
He furthermore advocated for greater action by the Portuguese governor for the propagation of Christianity in Goa going as far as threatening the official with severe punishment in case of failure
"Let the king warn the governor that] "should he fail to take active steps for the great increase of our faith, you are determined to punish him, and inform him with a solemn oath that, on his return to Portugal, all his property will be forfeited for the benefit of the Santa Misericordia, and beyond this tell him that you will keep him in irons for a number of years... There is no better way of ensuring that all in India become Christians than that your highness should inflict severe punishment on a governor" [52] [53]
The inquisition was declared two decades after he left Goa, and the main laws were implemented in 1567, about 25 years after his departure. Around 15 years passed since his death and transfer of relics back to Old Goa.[54]
The letter cited was one written to King John III of Portugal, dated 20 January 1545 (3 years after leaving Goa) from Malacca in the Malay archipelago, in response to the scandalous lifestyle of the Portuguese sailors who had made the port city home, where he criticizes John III himself (something very rare at that time) about his officials who only care about collecting taxes and not about maintaining discipline amongst his subjects, and hence asks that a separate official with powers be sent to aid the old bishop to protect the new converts from ill-treatment from the undisciplined Portuguese commandants. He goes on to ask the King to stop thinking about filling his treasury and instead keep a part of the money made in the East Indies for the benefit of the new converts.[55]
Historian and former priest
Launch of the Inquisition in India
Even before the Inquisition was launched, the local government in Goa tried persons for religious crimes and punished those convicted, as well as targeted
A special religious tax was imposed before 1550 on Muslim mosques within Portuguese territory.[citation needed] Records suggest that a New Christian was executed by the Portuguese in 1539 for the religious crime of "heretical utterances". A Jewish converso or Christian convert named Jeronimo Dias was garrotted and burnt at the stake in Goa by the Portuguese, for the religious heresy of Judaizing in 1543 before the Goa Inquisition tribunal was formed.[60][59]
The beginning of the Inquisition
Cardinal
Various orders issued by the Goa Inquisition included:
- All qadis were ordered out of Portuguese territory in 1567[63]
- Non-Christians were forbidden from occupying any public office, and only a Christian could hold such an office;[64][63]
- Hindus were forbidden from producing any Christian devotional objects or symbols;[64]
- Hindu children whose father had died were required to be handed over to the Jesuits for conversion to Christianity;[64]
- Hindu women who converted to Christianity could inherit all of the property of their parents;[64]
- Hindu clerks in all village councils were replaced with Christians;[64]
- Christian ganvkars (freeholders) could make village decisions without any Hindu ganvkars present, however Hindu ganvkars could not make any village decisions unless all Christian ganvkars were present; in Goan villages with Christian majorities, Hindus were forbidden from attending village assemblies.[63]
- Christian members were to sign first on any proceedings, Hindus later;[65]
- In legal proceedings, Hindus were unacceptable as witnesses, only statements from Christian witnesses were admissible.[63]
- Hindu temples were demolished in Portuguese Goa, and Hindus were forbidden from building new temples or repairing old ones. A temple demolition squad of Jesuits was formed which actively demolished pre-16th century temples, with a 1569 royal letter recording that all Hindu temples in Portuguese colonies in India have been demolished and burnt down (desfeitos e queimados);[65]
- Hindu priests were forbidden from entering Portuguese Goa to officiate Hindu weddings.[65]
From 1560 to 1774, a total of 16,172 persons were tried by the tribunals of the Inquisition.[66] While it also included individuals of different nationalities, the overwhelming majority, nearly three-quarters, were natives, almost equally represented by Catholics and non-Christians. Many of these were hauled up for crossing the border and cultivating lands there.[67]
According to Benton, between 1561 and 1623, the Goa Inquisition brought 3,800 cases. This was a large number given that the total population of Goa was about 60,000 in the 1580s with an estimated Hindu population then about a third or 20,000.[63]
Seventy-one
Implementation and consequences
An appeal to start the Inquisition in the Indian colonies of Portugal was sent by Vicar General
The colonial administration under demands of the Jesuits and Church Provincial Council of Goa in 1567 enacted
The inquisition forced Hindus to flee Goa in large numbers[63] and later the migration of its Christians and Muslims, from Goa to the surrounding regions that were not in the control of the Jesuits and Portuguese India.[65][77] The Hindus responded to the destruction of their temples by recovering the images from the ruins of their older temples and using them to build new temples just outside the borders of the Portuguese controlled territories. In some cases where the Portuguese built churches on the spot the destroyed temples were, Hindus started annual processions that carry their gods and goddesses linking their newer temples to the site where the churches stand, after Portuguese colonial era ended.[78][79]
Persecution of Hindus
Hindus could be arrested for attempting to dissuade countrymen for converting to Christianity, abetting Goan Christians from fleeing Goa, or hiding abandoned/Orphaned children who had not been reported to the authorities.
Social group | Per cent[81] |
---|---|
Non Brahmins | 18.5% |
Curumbins (Tribal-untouchables)[82] |
17.5% |
Chardos (warriors)[83] |
7% |
Brahmins | 5% |
Fr. Diogo da Borba and his advisor Vicar General Miguel Vaz followed the missionary goals to convert the Hindus. In cooperation with the Jesuit and
Exact data on the nature and number of Hindu temples destroyed by the Christian missionaries and Portuguese government are unavailable.[85] Some 160 temples were razed to the ground on the Goa island by 1566. Between 1566 and 1567, a campaign by Franciscan missionaries destroyed another 300 Hindu temples in Bardez (North Goa).[85] In Salcete (South Goa), approximately another 300 Hindu temples were destroyed by the Christian officials of the Inquisition. Numerous Hindu temples were destroyed elsewhere at Assolna and Cuncolim by Portuguese authorities.[85] A 1569 royal letter in Portuguese archives records that all Hindu temples in its colonies in India had been burnt and razed to the ground.[86]
According to
New laws promulgated between 1566 and 1576 prohibited Hindus from repairing any damaged temples or constructing new ones.[85] Ceremonies including public Hindu weddings were banned.[76] Anyone who owned an image of a Hindu god or goddess was deemed a criminal.[85] Non-Hindus in Goa were encouraged to identify and report anyone who owned images of god or goddess to the Inquisition authorities. Those accused were searched and if any evidence was found, such "idol owning" Hindus were arrested and they lost their property. Half of the seized property went as reward to the accusers, the other half to the church.[85]
"The fathers of the Church forbade the Hindus under terrible penalties the use of
In 1620, an order was passed to prohibit Hindus from performing their marriage rituals.[88] An order was issued in June 1684 for suppressing the Konkani language and making it compulsory to speak Portuguese. The law provided for dealing harshly with anyone using the local languages. Following that law, all non-Catholic cultural symbols and books written in local languages were to be destroyed.[89] The French physician Charles Dellon experienced first-hand the cruelty of the Inquisition's agents, and complained about the goals, arbitrariness, torture and racial discrimination against the people of Indian origin, particularly Hindus.[90][7][11] He was arrested, served a prison sentence where he witnessed the torture and starvation Hindus were put through, and was released under the pressure of the French government. He returned to France and published a book in 1687 describing his experiences in Goa as Relation de l'Inquisition de Goa (The Inquisition of Goa).[90]
Persecution of Buddhists
The Goa Inquisition led the destruction of
According to Hannah Wojciehowski, the "monkey" word became a racialised insult in the proceedings, but it may initially have been a product of syncretism between Hinduism and Buddhism, given the fact that the Buddha tooth relic was preserved and considered sacred by Tamil Hindus in Jaffna, and these Hindus also worshipped Hanuman.[93] To the Portuguese inquisition officials and their European supporters, the term projected their stereotypes for the lands and people they had violently conquered as well as their prejudices against Indian religions.[91]
Persecution of Jews
Goa was a sanctuary for Jews who had been forcibly converted to Christianity on the Iberian peninsula. These forcibly baptized converts were known as New Christians. They lived in what then came to be known as the Jew street.
The Inquisition originally targeted New Christians, that is Jews who had been force-converted to Christianity and who migrated from Portugal to India between 1505 and 1560.[7] Later it added in Moors, a term that meant Muslims who had previously invaded the Iberian peninsula from Morocco. In Goa, the Inquisition included Jews, Muslims and later predominantly Hindus.[63]
A documented case of the persecution of the Jews (New Christians) that began few years before the inauguration of the Goa Inquisition was that of a Goan woman named Caldeira. Her trial contributed to formal launch of Goa Inquisition office.[95]
Caldeira, and 19 other New Christians, were arrested by the Portuguese and brought before the tribunal in 1557. They were charged with
The persecution of Jews extended to Portuguese territorial claims in Cochin. Their Synagogue (the
Persecution of Goan Catholics
The Inquisition considered those Hindus who had converted to Catholicism, but continued to observe their former Hindu customs and cultural practices, as heretics.
There were other far reaching changes that took place during the Portuguese occupation, these changes included the prohibition of traditional musical instruments and the prohibition of the singing of celebratory verses, which were replaced with Western music.[100][full citation needed]
People were renamed when they converted and they were not permitted to use their original Hindu names. Alcohol was introduced and dietary habits changed dramatically so that foods which were once taboo, such as pork which is shunned by Muslims and beef which is shunned by Hindus, became part of the Goan diet.[99]
Nevertheless, many Goan Catholics continued to observe some of their old cultural practices and Hindu customs.[97] Some of those accused of Crypto-Hinduism were condemned to death. Such circumstances forced many to leave Goa and settle in the neighbouring kingdoms, of which a minority went to the Deccan and the vast majority went to Canara.[97][98]
Historian Severine Silva states that those who fled the Inquisition preferred to observe a mixture of Hindu customs and Catholic practices.[97]
As the persecution increased, missionaries complained that the
In the later decades of the 250-year period of the Goa Inquisition, the Portuguese Catholic clergy discriminated against the Indian Catholic clergy because its members were the children of previously converted Catholic parents. The Goan Catholics were referred to as "black priests" and they were also stereotyped as being "ill-natured and ill-behaved by their very nature, lascivious, drunkards, etc. and, based on these stereotypes, they were considered most unworthy to receive the charge of the churches" in Goa.[102] Friars who did not want to lose their careers and promotions alleged that unlike proper Europeans, those who grew up as native Catholics hated "white skinned" people because they were suffering from the "diabolic vice of pride". These racist accusations were used as grounds to keep the parishes and the institution of the clergy in Goa under the monopoly of the Portuguese Catholics rather than allow native Goan Catholics to rise in their ecclesiastical careers based on their merits.[102]
Suppression of Konkani
In stark contrast to the Portuguese priests' earlier intense study of the Konkani language and its cultivation as a communication medium in their quest for converts during the previous century, under the Inquisition, xenophobic measures were adopted to isolate new converts from the non-Catholic populations.[103] The use of Konkani was suppressed, while the colony suffered from repeated Maratha attempts to invade Goa in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. These events posed a serious threat to Portugal's control of Goa, and they also posed a serious threat to its maintenance of its trade in India.[103] Due to the Maratha threat, Portuguese authorities decided to initiate a positive programme to suppress Konkani in Goa.[103] The use of Portuguese was enforced, and Konkani became a language of marginal peoples.[104]
Urged by the
As a result, Goans did not develop a literature in Konkani, nor could the language unite the population, because several scripts (including Roman, Devanagari and Kannada) were used to write it.[104] Konkani became the lingua de criados (language of the servants),[106] while the Hindu and Catholic elites turned to Marathi and Portuguese, respectively. Since India annexed Goa in 1961, Konkani has become the cement that binds all Goans across caste, religion and class; it is affectionately termed Konkani Mai (Mother Konkani).[104] The language received full recognition in 1987, when the Indian government recognised Konkani as the official language of Goa.[107]
Persecution of St Thomas Christians
In 1599 under
Persecution of non-Portuguese catholic Christians
The Goa Inquisition also persecuted non-Portuguese Christian missionaries and physicians, such as those missionaries and physicians who were from France.[110] In the 16th century, the Portuguese clergy became jealous of a French priest who was operating in Madras (now Chennai); they lured him to Goa, then they had him arrested and sent to the inquisition. The French priest was saved when the Hindu King of a Karnataka kingdom interceded on his behalf by laying siege to St. Thome until the priest was released.[110] Charles Dellon, the 18th-century French physician, was another Christian who was arrested and tortured by the Goa Inquisition because he questioned Portuguese missionary practices in India.[110][111][112] For five years, Dellon was imprisoned by the Goa Inquisition and he was not released until France demanded it. Dellon described, states Klaus Klostermaier, the horrors of life and death at the Catholic Palace of the Inquisition that managed the prison and deployed a rich assortment of torture instruments per recommendations of the Church tribunals.[113]
There were assassination attempts against Archdeacon George [who?], so as to subjugate the entire Church under Rome. The common prayer book was not spared. Books were burnt and any priest who was professing independence was imprisoned. Some altars were pulled down to make way for altars which were conforming to Catholic criteria.[109]
In Literature
The Goa Inquisition, Being a Quatercentenary Commemoration Study of the Inquisition in India is a book published by Mumbai University Press and authored by Anant Priolkar. It is a narrative of the Goan Inquisition organised by the Portuguese rulers of Goa.
Lydia Sigourney included the poem "The Destruction of the Inquisition in Goa" in her Moral Pieces in Prose and Verse of 1815.
Well-known Bengali writer Avik Sarkar wrote a novel, Ebong Inquisition in 2017, which stands on the backdrop of the massacre of Hindus in Goa.
See also
Notes
- a ^ The papal bull Licet ab initio proclaimed an Apostolic constitution on 21 July 1542.[114][115]
- b ^ In his 1731 letter to King João V, the Inquisitor António Amaral Coutinho states:[105]
The first and the principal cause of such a lamentable ruin (perdition of souls) is the disregard of the law of His Majesty, Dom Sebastião of glorious memory, and the Goan Councils, prohibiting the natives to converse in their own vernacular and making obligatory the use of the Portuguese language: this disregard in observing the law, gave rise to so many and so great evils, to the extent of effecting irreparable harm to souls, as well as to the royal revenues. Since i have been though unworthy, the Inquisitor of this State, ruin has set in the villages of
Jesus Christ which they had professed in the sacrament of Holy Baptism. This would not have happened had they known only the Portuguese language; since they being ignorant of the native tongue the botos, grous (gurus) and their attendants would not have been able to have any communication with them, for the simple reason that the latter could only converse in the vernacular of the place. Thus an end would have been put to the great loss among native Christians whose faith has not been well grounded, and who easily yield to the teaching of the Hindu priests.
- ^ The institution of Padroado dates to the 11th-century.[37] Similarly, Portuguese king's involvement in setting up, financing and militarily supporting Catholic missionaries pre-dated Portuguese Goa by centuries.[37] A number of Vatican bulls were issued to formalize this process before and after Portuguese Goa was established. For example, for the conquest of Ceuta where missionaries sailed with the Portuguese armada, the Inter Caetera bull of 1456, and the much later dated Praeclara Charissimi bull that bestowed upon the Portuguese king the responsibilities of "Grand Master of the military orders of Christ", and others.[38]
- ^ Early texts use the term "the Roman fathers" for Jesuits. The first Jesuits arrived in Goa in 1540.[40]
- ^ The per cent data includes those charged with Crypto-Hinduism and where the caste is identified. For about 50% of the victims, this data is unavailable.[81]
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Bibliography
- ISBN 9780521548854.
- Richard Zimler. Guardian of the Dawn (Delta Publishing, 2005).
- Benton, Lauren. Law and Colonial Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History, 1400–1900 (Cambridge, 2002).
- D'Costa Anthony, S.J. The Christianisation of the Goa Islands, 1510-1567 (Bombay, 1965).
- Hunter, William W. The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Trubner & Co, 1886).
- Priolkar, A. K. The Goa Inquisition (Bombay, 1961).
- Sakshena, R. N. Goa: Into the Mainstream (Abhinav Publications, 2003).
- Saraiva, Antonio Jose. The Marrano Factory. The Portuguese Inquisition and Its New Christians, 1536–1765 (Brill, 2001).
- Shirodhkar, P. P. Socio-Cultural life in Goa during the 16th century.
- Machado, Alan (1999). Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians. Bangalore: I.J.A. Publications. ISBN 9788187609032.
Further reading
- App, Urs. The Birth of Orientalism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-8122-4261-4); contains a 60-page chapter (pp. 15–76) on Voltaire as a pioneer of Indomania and his use of fake Indian texts in anti-Christian propaganda.
- Zimler, Richard. Guardian of the Dawn Constable & Robinson, (ISBN 1-84529-091-7) An award-winning historical novel set in Goa that explores the devastating effect of the Inquisition on a family of secret Jews.
External links
- Relation de l'inquisition de Goa, Gabriel Delon (1688, in French)
- The history of the Inquisition, as it is exercised at Goa written in French, by the ingenious Monsieur Dellon, who laboured five years under those severities ; with an account of his deliverance ; translated into English, Henry Wharton (1689) (Large file, University of Michigan Archives)
- An account of the Inquisition at Goa, in India by Gabriel Dellon (Re-translated in 1819)
- Flight of the Deities: Hindu Resistance in Portuguese Goa Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 30, No. 2. (May, 1996), pp. 387–421
- Repression of Buddhism in Sri Lanka by the Portuguese (1505 – 1658) by the Australian Centre for Sri Lankan Unity