History of Tennessee
Tennessee was the last state to formally leave the
After 1900, Tennessee transitioned from an agrarian economy based on tobacco and cotton, to a more diversified economy. This was aided in part by massive federal investment in the Tennessee Valley Authority created in the 1930s by the New Deal, helping the TVA become the nation's largest public utility provider. The huge electricity supply made possible the establishment of the city of Oak Ridge to house the Manhattan Project's uranium enrichment facilities, helping to build the world's first atomic bombs. In 2016, the element tennessine was named for the state, largely in recognition of the roles played by Oak Ridge, Vanderbilt University, and the University of Tennessee in the element's discovery.[2]
Prehistory
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Paleo-Indians are believed to have hunted and camped in what is now Tennessee as early as 12,000 years ago. Along with projectile points common for this period, archaeologists in Williamson County have uncovered a 12,000-year-old mastodon skeleton with cut marks typical of prehistoric hunters.[3]
The most prominent known
Tennessee is home to two major
European exploration and settlement
Early Spanish and French exploration
In the 16th century, three
Chronicles of the Spanish explorers provide the earliest written accounts regarding the Tennessee Valley's 16th-century inhabitants. Most of the valley, including Chiaha, was part of the Coosa chiefdom's regional sphere of influence. Inhabitants spoke a dialect of the
As of the 17th century, Tennessee was the middle ground for several different native peoples. Along the Mississippi River was the
To the east were the Yuchi & Iroquoian Cherokee, divided along the Tennessee River. In the north-central region of the state were the Algonquian Cisca.[24] They later moved northeast and merged with the Shawnee, but were briefly replaced with a second native nation known as the Maumee, or Mascouten[25] which were driven south during the Beaver Wars (1640-1680) from southern Michigan. They later merged with the Miami of Indiana & were, once again, replaced by the Shawnee. The Shawnee controlled most of the Ohio River Region until the Shawnee Wars (1811-1813).[26][27]
In 1673, British fur trader Abraham Wood sent an expedition led by James Needham and Gabriel Arthur from Fort Henry in the Colony of Virginia into Overhill Cherokee territory in modern-day northeastern Tennessee.[28] Needham was killed during the expedition and Arthur was taken prisoner for more than a year.[29][30] That same year, a French expedition led by missionary Jacques Marquette and trader Louis Jolliet explored the Mississippi River and became the first Europeans to map the Mississippi Valley.[29][28]
French explorers and traders, led by Robert de La Salle, entered the region in 1682 at Fort Prudhomme. France briefly (1739–1740) established a presence at Fort Assumption during the Chickasaw Wars.[12][31] In 1714, a group of French traders under Charles Charleville's command established a settlement at the present location of downtown Nashville near the Cumberland River, which became known as French Lick.[32] These settlers quickly established an extensive fur trading network with the local Native Americans, but by the 1740s the settlement had largely been abandoned.[33] In 1739, the French constructed Fort Assumption under Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville on the Mississippi River at the present-day location of Memphis, which they used as a base against the Chickasaw during the 1739 Campaign of the Chickasaw Wars. It was abandoned the next year after the Chickasaw took hostage French troops stationed at the fort.[34]
The
Early British exploration and settlement
In the 1750s and 1760s,
Watauga Association
During 1772, the Watauga Association met with, and leased lands belonging to, the Cherokee at Sycamore Shoals (in the present day area of Elizabethton, Tennessee). In 1775, Sycamore Shoals was the site of the Transylvania purchase, conducted between the Cherokee and North Carolina land baron, Richard Henderson.
The Treaty of Sycamore Shoals, more popularly referred to as the Transylvania Purchase (after Henderson's Transylvania Company, which had raised money for the endeavor), consisted of two parts. The first, known as the "Path Grant Deed", regarded the Transylvania Company's purchase of lands in southwest Virginia (including parts of what is now West Virginia) and northeastern Tennessee. The second part, known as the "Great Grant," acknowledged the Transylvania Company's purchase of some 20,000,000 acres (81,000 km2) of land between the Kentucky River and Cumberland River, which included a large portion of modern Kentucky and a significant portion of Tennessee north of present day Nashville. The Transylvania Company paid for the land with 10,000 pounds sterling of trade goods. After the treaty was signed, frontier explorer Daniel Boone came northward to blaze the Wilderness Road, connecting the Transylvania Purchase lands with the Holston and Watauga settlements.
Both the lease and the sale were considered illegal by the Crown Government, as well as by the warring Cherokee faction known as the Chickamauga, led by the war-chief, Dragging Canoe. The Chickamauga violently contested the westward expansion by European settlers across Tennessee throughout the Cherokee–American wars (1776–1794).
In April 1775, the Watauga Association was reorganized as the "Washington District," allied with the colonies that were declaring independence from Great Britain. The Washington District annexation petition was first rejected by Virginia in the spring of 1776, but a similar annexation petition presented by the district to the North Carolina legislature was approved in November 1776.
Government under North Carolina
In the days before statehood, Tennesseans struggled to gain a political voice and suffered for lack of the protection afforded by organized government. Six counties—Washington, Sullivan, and Greene in East Tennessee; and Davidson, Sumner, and Tennessee County in Middle Tennessee—had been formed as western counties of North Carolina between 1777 and 1788.
In 1780, the newly formed Cumberland Association, under the Cumberland Compact, established Fort Nashborough on the Cumberland River, opening up a second frontier of settlement within present-day Tennessee. The Cumberland River settlements were separated from those in the east by a substantial enclave of Cherokee territory that was not formally acquired from them until 1805.
After the American Revolutionary War, North Carolina did not want the trouble and expense of maintaining such distant settlements, embroiled as they were with hostile tribesmen during the Cherokee–American wars, and needing roads, forts, and open waterways. Nor could the far-flung settlers look to the national government; for under the weak, loosely constituted Articles of Confederation, it was a government in name only.
In 1775,
The first permanent settlement in Tennessee,
State of Franklin
The westerners' two main demands—protection from the Indians and the right to navigate the Mississippi River—went mainly unheeded during the 1780s. North Carolina's insensitivity led frustrated East Tennesseans in 1784 to form the breakaway State of Franklin.
John Sevier was named governor, and the fledgling state began operating as an independent, though unrecognized, government. At the same time, leaders of the Cumberland settlements made overtures for an alliance with Spain, which controlled the lower Mississippi River and was held responsible for inciting the Indian raids. In drawing up the Watauga and Cumberland Compacts, early Tennesseans had already exercised some of the rights of self-government and were showing signs of a willingness to take political matters into their own hands.
Such stirrings of independence caught the attention of North Carolina, which began to reassert control over its western counties. These policies and internal divisions among East Tennesseans doomed the short-lived State of Franklin, which passed out of existence by early 1789.
Southwest Territory
When North Carolina ratified the Constitution of the United States in 1789, it also ceded its western lands, the "Tennessee country", to the Federal government. North Carolina had used these lands as a means of rewarding its Revolutionary War soldiers. In the Cession Act of 1789, it reserved the right to satisfy further land claims in Tennessee.
Congress designated the area as the "Territory of the United States South of the River Ohio", more commonly known as the Southwest Territory. The territory was divided into three districts—two for East Tennessee and one for the Mero District on the Cumberland—each with its own courts, militia and officeholders. President George Washington appointed William Blount, a prominent North Carolinian politician with extensive holdings in the western lands, territorial governor.
Admission to the Union
In 1795, a territorial census revealed a sufficient population for statehood. A referendum showed a three-to-one majority in favor of joining the Union. Governor Blount called for a
The voters chose Sevier as governor. The newly elected legislature voted for Blount and
Tennessee leaders thereby converted the territory into a new state, with organized government and constitution, before applying to Congress for admission. Since the Southwest Territory was the first Federal territory to present itself for admission to the Union, there was some uncertainty about how to proceed, and Congress was divided on the issue.
Nonetheless, in a close vote on June 1, 1796, Congress approved the admission of Tennessee as the sixteenth state of the Union. They drew its borders by extending the northern and southern borders of North Carolina, with a few deviations, to the Mississippi River, Tennessee's western boundary.
Jacksonian America (1815–1841)
In the early years of settlement, planters brought African slaves with them from Kentucky and Virginia. These slaves were first concentrated in Middle Tennessee, where planters developed mixed crops and bred high-quality horses and cattle, as they did in the Inner Bluegrass region of Kentucky. East Tennessee had more subsistence farmers and few slaveholders.
During the early years of state formation, there was support for emancipation. At the constitutional convention of 1796, "free negroes" were given the right to vote if they met residency and property requirements. Efforts to abolish slavery were defeated at this convention and again at the convention of 1834. The convention of 1834 also marked the state's retraction of suffrage for most freed slaves.
By 1830 the number of African Americans had increased from less than 4,000 at the beginning of the century to 146,158. This was chiefly related to the invention of the cotton gin in 1793 and the development of large plantations and transportation of numerous enslaved people to the Cotton Belt in West Tennessee, in the area of the Mississippi River.
Antebellum years (1841–1861)
By 1860 the slave population had nearly doubled to 283,019, with only 7,300 free African Americans in the state.[53] While much of the slave population was concentrated in West Tennessee, planters in Middle Tennessee also used enslaved African Americans for labor. According to the 1860 census, African slaves comprised about 25% of the state's population of 1.1 million before the Civil War.
Civil War
Secession
Most Tennesseans initially showed little enthusiasm for breaking away from a nation whose struggles it had shared for so long. There were small exceptions such as Franklin County, which borders Alabama in southern Middle Tennessee; Franklin County formally threatened to secede from Tennessee and join Alabama if Tennessee did not leave the Union. Franklin County withdrew this threat when Tennessee did eventually secede. In 1860, Tennesseans had voted by a slim margin for the Constitutional Unionist John Bell, a native son and moderate who continued to search for a way out of the crisis.
In February 1861, fifty-four percent of the state's voters voted against sending delegates to a secession convention. With the attack on Fort Sumter in April, however, followed by President Abraham Lincoln's call for 75,000 volunteers to coerce the seceded states back into line, public sentiment turned dramatically against the Union.
Historian Daniel Crofts wrote: "Unionists of all descriptions, both those who became Confederates and those who did not, considered the proclamation calling for seventy-five thousand troops 'disastrous.' Having consulted personally with Lincoln in March, Congressman Horace Maynard, the unconditional Unionist and future Republican from East Tennessee, felt assured that the administration would pursue a peaceful policy. Soon after April 15, a dismayed Maynard reported that 'the President's extraordinary proclamation' had unleashed 'a tornado of excitement that seems likely to sweep us all away.' Men who had 'heretofore been cool, firm and Union loving' had become 'perfectly wild' and were 'aroused to a phrenzy[sic] of passion.' For what purpose, they asked, could such an army be wanted 'but to invade, overrun and subjugate the Southern states.' The growing war spirit in the North further convinced southerners that they would have to 'fight for our hearthstones and the security of home.'[54]
Governor
Having ratified by popular vote its connection with the fledgling Confederacy, Tennessee became the last state to officially withdraw from the Union.
Unionism
People in
Tennessee provided more Union troops than any other Confederate state; more than 51,000 soldiers in total, more than 20,000 of whom were Black.[59] Tennessee also provided 135,000 Confederate troops, the second-highest number after Virginia.
Battles
Many battles were fought in the state – most of them Union victories.
After Nashville was captured (the first Confederate state capital to fall), Andrew Johnson, an East Tennessean from Greeneville, was appointed military governor of the state by Lincoln. The military government abolished slavery in the state and Union troops occupied much of the state through the end of the war.
The Confederates continued to hold East Tennessee despite the strength of Unionist sentiment there, with the exception of pro-Confederate Sullivan County. The Confederates besieged Chattanooga in early fall 1863 but were driven off by Grant in November. Many of the Confederate defeats can be attributed to the poor strategic vision of General Braxton Bragg, who led the Army of Tennessee from Shiloh to Confederate defeat at Chattanooga.
The last major battles came when the Confederates invaded in November 1864 and were checked at Franklin, then totally destroyed by George Thomas at Nashville in December.
Reconstruction era and disenfranchisement
After the war, Tennessee adopted the Thirteenth amendment forbidding slave-holding or involuntary servitude on February 22, 1865; ratified the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution on July 18, 1866; and was the first state readmitted to the Union on July 24, 1866.
Because it had ratified the
There were only two or three African Americans in the Tennessee legislature during Reconstruction, though others served as state and city officers. With increased participation on the Nashville City Council, African Americans then held one-third of the seats.[61] In his race for Congress in 1872, Andrew Johnson addressed African Americans in speaking campaigns in western counties, saying, "If fit and qualified by character and education, no one should deny you the ballot."[61]
In 1870, Southern Democrats regained control of the state legislature, and quickly reversed many of the reforms of the Brownlow administration.[62] In 1889, the Tennessee General Assembly passed four acts of self-described electoral reform that resulted in the disenfranchisement of a significant portion of African American voters as well as many poor white voters.[63] The timing of the legislation resulted from a unique opportunity seized by the Democratic Party to bring an end to what one historian described as the most "consistently competitive political system in the South." These laws instituted a poll tax, required early voter registration, allowed secret ballots, and required separate ballot boxes for state and federal elections.[63]
Between 1877 and 1950, 236 lynchings of Black people in Tennessee have been documented, including hangings of Black journalists, business leaders, and teachers.[64] Lynchings were a form of social control whereby a victim's family, friends, and other community members were forced to adopt a public code of silence about the lynching or fear for their own lives. The identity of lynchers was almost always known, with local police often facilitating the act, and the local press praising it.[65]
In the political campaign of 1888, the Democrats waged a political battle to gain quorum control over both houses of the legislature. With Republicans unable to stall or defeat antiparty measures, the disenfranchising acts sailed through the 1889 general assembly, and Governor Robert L. Taylor signed them into law. Hailed by newspaper editors as the end of black voting, the laws worked as expected, and African American voting declined precipitously in rural and small town Tennessee. Many urban blacks continued to vote until so-called progressive reforms eliminated their political power in the early twentieth century.[66]
Disenfranchising provisions worked against poor whites as well for decades. Tennessee, with the Democratic Party in power in the Middle and Western sections; the Eastern section retained Republican support based on its Unionist leanings before and during the war.
Tennessee Centennial
In 1897, the state celebrated its
Early 20th century
During the
Women's rights
Tennessee became the focus of national attention during the campaign for women's voting rights. Like the temperance movement, women's suffrage was an issue with its roots in middle-class reform efforts of the late 19th century.
The organized movement came of age with the founding of the Tennessee Equal Suffrage Association in 1906, which gave the movement at least one national leader in
In August 1920, Governor
Scopes Trial
National attention came Tennessee's way during the trial of
Their plan worked all too well, as the Rhea County Courthouse was turned into a circus of national and even international media coverage. Thousands flocked to Dayton to witness the high-powered legal counsels, William Jennings Bryan for the prosecution, and Clarence Darrow for the defense, argue their case.
Tennessee was ridiculed in the northeast and West Coast press as the "Monkey State," even as a wave of revivals defending religious fundamentalism swept the state. The trial was also given the name "Monkey Trial" by the same reporters. The legal outcome of the trial was inconsequential. Scopes was convicted and fined $100, a penalty later rescinded by the state court of appeals. The law itself remained on the books until 1967.
Country music birthplace
At the very time that Tennessee's rural culture was under attack by urban critics, its music found a national audience.
In 1925, WSM, a powerful Nashville radio station, began broadcasting a weekly program of live music which soon was dubbed the "Grand Ole Opry." Such music came in diverse forms: banjo-and-fiddle string bands from Appalachia; family gospel singing groups; and country vaudeville acts (such as Murfreesboro native Uncle Dave Macon). As of 2014, the longest-running radio program in American history, the Opry used the new technology of radio to tap into a huge market for "old timey" or "hillbilly" music.
Two years after the Opry's opening, in a series of
The Great Depression and TVA
The need to create work for the unemployed during the
Inexpensive and abundant electrical power was the main benefit the TVA brought to Tennessee, particularly to rural areas that previously did not have electrical service. TVA brought electricity to about 60,000 farm households across the state. By 1945, TVA was the largest electrical utility in the nation, a supplier of vast amounts of power whose presence in Tennessee attracted large industries to relocate near one of its dams or steam plants. This incentive contributed to important economic development in the state.
World War II and economic progress
World War II brought relief to Tennessee by employing ten percent of the state's populace (308,199 men and women) in the armed services. Most of those who remained on farms and in cities worked on war-related production since Tennessee received war orders amounting to $1.25 billion.
Tennessee military personnel served with distinction from
Tennesseans participated in all phases of the war—from combat to civilian administration to military research. Cordell Hull served twelve years as Franklin D. Roosevelt's Secretary of State and became one of the chief architects of the United Nations, for which he received the Nobel Peace Prize.
Industrial expansion
War-based industries hummed with the labor of a greatly enlarged workforce. A giant shell-loading plant was built at Milan, as well as the Vultee Aircraft works in Nashville; TVA projects also expanded in East Tennessee. Approximately 33% of the state's workers were female by the end of the war.
Especially significant for the war effort was Tennessee's role in the
With increased industrialization of the state's economy, the
Changes to poll tax disenfranchisement
Disenfranchising legislation of the late 19th century had affected poor whites as well as blacks. Despite vows to overturn them, "successive legislatures expanded the reach of the disenfranchising laws until they covered the state... County officers regulated the vote by providing opportunities to pay the tax (as they did in Knoxville), or conversely by making payment as difficult as possible. Such manipulation of the tax, and therefore the vote, created an opportunity for the rise of urban bosses and political machines. Urban politicians bought large blocks of poll tax receipts and distributed them to blacks and whites, who then voted as instructed."[66]
Abuses of the poll tax continued to resist efforts by reformers for change in the 1930s and 1940s. In 1943 legislators managed to rescind the poll tax, but the Tennessee Supreme Court declared that action unconstitutional.[66] It was not until 1953 that a new constitutional convention finally removed provisions for the poll tax. Hundreds of thousands of citizens, both black and white, had been disenfranchised by its abuses during the decades since its passage.
Civil Rights Movement
Tennessee played an important and prominent role during the
In the spring of 1960, after decades of segregation, Tennessee's
The Nashville sit-ins reached a turning point when the house of Z. Alexander Looby, a prominent African-American attorney and leader, was bombed. Although no one was killed, thousands of protesters spontaneously marched to Nashville City Hall to confront Mayor Ben West. Meeting the mass of protesters outside city hall, West informally debated with them and concluded by conceding that segregation was immoral. The bombing, the march, and Mayor West's statement helped convince downtown lunch counters to desegregate. Although segregation and Jim Crow were by no means over, the episode served as one of the first successful events of mostly nonviolent protest.
The community leadership and activism of African Americans in the Civil Rights Movement across the South gained passage of the national Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. African Americans gained more civil rights and the power to exercise their voting rights. Voting rights for all races were protected by provisions of the Voting Rights Act.
Martin Luther King Jr. assassination
In contrast to the successes of the movement in Tennessee, the 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., in Memphis was perceived as symbolic of hatred in the state. King was in the city to support a strike by black sanitary public works employees of AFSCME Local 1733. The city quickly settled the strike on favorable terms to the employees. Riots and civil unrest erupted in African-American areas in numerous cities across the country, resulting in widespread injuries and millions of dollars in property damages.
Latter half of 20th century
In 1953, voters approved eight amendments to the state constitution, which extended the governor's term from two to four years, prohibiting two successive terms, and outlawed the poll tax.[73]
In the years following World War II, Tennessee's economy continued to industrialize, and demand for energy grew faster than ever before. TVA built additional dams and coal-fired power plants in the state during the postwar years.[74][75]
By the 1960s and onward, the state experienced economic growth due to the construction of the
In 1977, a state constitutional convention was held that recommended 13 amendments to the state's constitution, 12 of which votes approved the next year. The changes allowed governors to serve two consecutive terms, required the General Assembly to balance the state's annual budget, reformed county legislative bodies, and removed provisions that had been invalidated by federal legislation and court cases during the Civil Rights Movement.[77]
TVA's construction of the Tellico Dam in Loudon County became the subject of national controversy in the 1970s when the endangered snail darter fish was reported to be affected by the project. After lawsuits by environmental groups, the debate was decided by the U.S. Supreme Court case Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill in 1978, leading to amendments of the Endangered Species Act that same year.[78]
The 1982 World's Fair was held in Knoxville.[79] Also known as the Knoxville International Energy Exposition, the fair's theme was "Energy Turns the World". The exposition was one of the most successful, and the last world's fair to be held in the United States as of 2021.[80] In 1986, Tennessee held a yearlong celebration of the state's heritage and culture called "Homecoming '86". As part of the celebration, citizens of individual communities throughout the state researched their history, set future goals, conducted projects to preserve, promote, or enhance the quality of their respective communities, and organized other celebratory events.[81][82]
1996 Bicentennial
Tennessee celebrated its bicentennial in 1996 after a yearlong statewide celebration entitled "Tennessee 200" by opening a new state park—the
21st century
In 2002,
In April and May 2010, flooding in Middle Tennessee devastated Nashville and other parts of Middle Tennessee.[83] In April 2011, parts of East Tennessee, including Hamilton and Bradley counties, were devastated by the 2011 Super Outbreak, the largest and costliest tornado outbreak in history.[84]
See also
- Cities in Tennessee
- Timeline of Chattanooga, Tennessee
- Timeline of Knoxville, Tennessee
- Timeline of Memphis, Tennessee
- Timeline of Nashville, Tennessee
References
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- Corlew, Robert E.; Folmsbee, Stanley E.; Mitchell, Enoch (1981). Tennessee: A Short History (2nd ed.). Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 9780870496479– via Internet Archive.
- Finger, John R. (2001). ISBN 978-0-253-33985-0.
- Lamon, Lester C. (1980). Blacks in Tennessee, 1791–1970. University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 978-0-87049-324-9.
- Langsdon, Phillip R. (2000). Tennessee: A Political History. Franklin, Tennessee: Hillboro Press. ISBN 9781577361251– via Internet Archive.
- Lyons, William; Scheb II, John M.; Stair, Billy (2001). Government and Politics in Tennessee. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 9781572331419– via Google Books.
- Moore, Harry (1994). A Geologic Trip Across Tennessee by Interstate 40. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. pp. 55–56. ISBN 9780870498329. Retrieved May 14, 2021 – via Google Books.
- ISBN 978-1-4585-0040-3– via Google Books.
- Satz, Ronald (1979). Tennessee's Indian Peoples. ISBN 978-0-87049-285-3– via Internet Archive.
Further reading
- Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture 3rd ed. 2021 online
- Van West, Carroll. The Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture (Tennessee Historical Society, 2002), print edition
Surveys
- Bergeron, Paul H. Paths of the Past: Tennessee, 1770-1970 (1979), Short survey
- Carpenter, William. History of Tennessee: From its earliest settlement to the present (2011)
- Folmsbee, Stanley John, Robert Ewing Corlew, and Enoch L. Mitchell. Tennessee: A Short History (University of Tennessee Press, 1969).
- Folmsbee, Stanley John. History of Tennessee (4 vol Lewis Historical Publishing Company, 1960), Two volumes of text 2 of biographies
- Laska, Lewis L. "A Legal and Constitutional History of Tennessee, 1772-1972" University of Memphis Law Review 6 (1975): 563+ online.
- Lamon, Lester C. Blacks in Tennessee, 1791–1970. University of Tennessee Press, 1980.
- Mansfield, Stephen, and George E Grant. Faithful Volunteers: The History of Religion in Tennessee (1997)
- Norton, Herman. Religion in Tennessee, 1777–1945. University of Tennessee Press, 1981.
- Putnam, Albigence Waldo. History of Middle Tennessee (1859) online.
- Sawyer, Susan. More Than Petticoats: Remarkable Tennessee Women (2nd ed. 2014)
- Van West, Carroll. Tennessee History: The Land, The People, and the Culture University of Tennessee Press, 1998.
To 1860
- Abernethy, Thomas Perkins. From Frontier to Plantation in Tennessee: A Study in Frontier Democracy (1932) online
- Arnow, Harriette Simpson. Seedtime on the Cumberland (1960)
- Arnow, Harriette Simpson. Flowering on the Cumberland (1963).
- Atkins, Jonathan. Parties, Politics and the Sectional Conflict in Tennessee, 1832-1861 (1997)
- Bergeron, Paul H. Antebellum Politics in Tennessee. (1982).
- Finger, John R. Tennessee Frontiers: Three Regions in Transition(Indiana UP, 2001).
- Holladay, Robert. "Antebellum Tennessee historiography: a critical appraisal," Tennessee Historical Quarterly (2010) 69#3 pp 224–241. online
- Johnson, Timothy D. For Duty and Honor: Tennessee’s Mexican War Experience (University of Tennessee Press, 2018) online review
- Kristofer Ray. published his Middle Tennessee, 1775-1825: Progress and Popular Democracy on the Southwestern Frontier (2007)
- LOWREY, FRANK MITCHELL, III. "TENNESSEE VOTERS DURING THE SECOND TWO-PARTY SYSTEM, 1836-1860: A STUDY IN VOTER CONSTANCY AND IN SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC DISTINCTIONS" (PhD dissertation, The University of Alabama; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1973. 7327310).
- Morris, Christopher. Becoming Southern: The Evolution of a Way of Life, Warren County and Vicksburg, Mississippi, 1770-1860 (1995).
- Ratner, Lorman A. Andrew Jackson and His Tennessee Lieutenants: A Study in Political Culture (2001)
- Roosevelt, Theodore. The Winning of the West (4 vol 1888), pre 1800
- TRICAMO, JOHN EDGAR. "TENNESSEE POLITICS, 1845-1861: (PhD Dissertation, Columbia University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1965. 6514009).
Civil War
- Ash. Steven V. Middle Tennessee Transformed, 1860–1870. Louisiana State University Press, 1988.
- Connelly, Thomas L. Civil War Tennessee: Battles and Leaders. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1979. ISBN 978-0-87049-261-7.
- Daniel, Larry J. Conquered: Why the Army of Tennessee Failed (UNC Press Books, 2019). online
- Groce, W. Todd. Mountain Rebels: East Tennessee Confederates and the Civil War. (University of Tennessee Press, 1999). ISBN 1-57233-093-7.
- Lepa, Jack H. The Civil War in Tennessee, 1862–1863. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 2007.
- Maslowski Peter. Treason Must Be Made Odious: Military Occupation and Wartime Reconstruction in Nashville, Tennessee, 1862-65. 1978.
- Patton, James W. Unionism and Reconstruction in Tennessee, 1860-1867. Chapel Hill, North Carolina University of North Carolina Press, 1934.
- Seymour, Digby Gordon and David Richer. Divided Loyalties: Fort Sanders and the Civil War in East Tennessee. East Tennessee Historical Society, 1982.
- Sheeler, J. Reuben. "Secession and The Unionist Revolt," Journal of Negro History, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Apr., 1944), pp. 175–185 in JSTOR, covers east Tennessee
Reconstruction
- Alexander, Thomas B. Political Reconstruction in Tennessee (1950)
- Alexander, Thomas B. "Political Reconstruction in Tennessee, 1865-1870,'" in Richard O. Curry, ed., Radicalism, Racism, and Party Realignment: The Border States during Reconstruction (Johns Hopkins UP, 1969) pp 37–79; an abridged version of Alexander's 1950 book.
- Alexander, Thomas B. "Kukluxism in Tennessee, 1865-1869." Tennessee Historical Quarterly (1949): 195-219. in JSTOR
- Cimprich, John. Slavery's End in Tennessee (U of Alabama Press, 2002).
- Cimprich, John. "The Beginning of the Black Suffrage Movement in Tennessee, 1864-65." Journal of Negro History 65.3 (1980): 185-195. in JSTOR
- Coulter, E. Merton. William G. Brownlow: Fighting Parson of the Southern Highlands (1937) online
- Fisher, Noel C. War at Every Door: Partisan Politics and Guerrilla Violence in East Tennessee, 1860-1869 (U of North Carolina Press, 2001).
- Groce, W. Todd. Mountain Rebels: East Tennessee Confederates and the Civil War, 1860-1870 (U of Tennessee Press, 2000).
- Harcourt, Edward John. "Who were the pale faces? New perspectives on the Tennessee Ku Klux." Civil War History 51.1 (2005): 23-66. online
- Hooper, Ernest Walter. Memphis, Tennessee, Federal occupation and reconstruction, 1862-1870. (U of North Carolina, 1957).
- McKinney, Gordon B. Southern Mountain Republicans, 1865-1900: Politics and the Appalachian Community (U of Tennessee Press, 1998).
- Maslowski, Peter. Treason must be made odious: military occupation and wartime reconstruction in Nashville, Tennessee, 1862-65. (Kto Press, 1978).
- Maslowski, Peter. "From Reconciliation to Reconstruction: Lincoln, Johnson, and Tennessee, Part II." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 42.4 (1983): 343-361. in JSTOR
- Miscamble, Wilson D. "Andrew Johnson and the Election of William G. (' Parson') Brownlow As Governor or Tennessee." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 37.3 (1978): 308-320. in JSTOR
- Patton; James Welch. Unionism and Reconstruction in Tennessee, 1860–1869 (1934)
- Phillips, Paul David. "Education of Blacks in Tennessee During Reconstruction, 1865-1870." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 46.2 (1987): 98-109.
- Phillips, Paul David. "White Reaction to the Freedmen's Bureau in Tennessee." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 25.1 (1966): 50-62. in JSTOR
- Taylor, Alrutheus A. Negro in Tennessee 1865–1880 (1974) ISBN 0-87152-165-2
Since 1876
- Bucy, Carole Stanford. "Tennessee in the Twentieth Century." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 69.3 (2010): 262-273. in JSTOR; including prohibition, religion, politics, music, military, race, and gender.
- Conkin, Paul K. "Evangelicals, Fugitives, and Hillbillies: Tennessee's Impact on American National Culture." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 54.3 (1995): 246.
- Cotham, Perry C. Toil, turmoil, and triumph: A portrait of the Tennessee labor movement (Providence House Publishers, 1995).
- Grantham, Dewey W. "Tennessee and Twentieth-Century American Politics." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 54.3 (1995): 210+
- Greene, Lee S. Lead Me On: Frank Goad Clement and Tennessee Politics (U of Tennessee Press, 1982); The Democrat was governor in the 1950s and 1960s.
- Hilliard, David M. "The development of public education in Memphis, Tennessee, 1848-1945" (PhD dissertation, University of Chicago; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1948. 3579774).
- Holt, Andrew David. "The struggle for a state system of public schools in Tennessee, 1903-1936" (1938, reprint 1972) online
- Isaac, Paul E. Prohibition and politics: Turbulent decades in Tennessee, 1885-1920 (1965).
- Israel, Charles. Before Scopes: Evangelicalism, Education, and Evolution in Tennessee, 1870-1925 (2004).
- Lewis. Charles Lee. Philander Priestley Claxton: Crusader for Public Education (1948) led reform in 1900-1912 online
- Majors, William R. Change and Continuity: Tennessee Politics Since the Civil War (Mercer University Press, 1986).
- Nelson, Michael, "Tennessee: Once a Bluish State, Now a Reddish One," Tennessee Historical Quarterly, 65 (Summer 2006), 162–83. Heavily illustrated, recent politics.
- Parks, Norman L. "Tennessee Politics Since Kefauver and Reece: A 'Generalist' View." Journal of Politics 28.01 (1966): 144-168.
- Rutledge, David William. "Fall from Grace? The Breakup of the Democratic Party and the Rise of Republicanism in Tennessee, 1948-1970". (Thesis Vanderbilt University. Dept. of History, 2008) online.
- Wheeler, Marjorie Spruill, ed. Votes for Women! The Woman Suffrage Movement in Tennessee, the South and the Nation (U of Tennessee Press, 1995), 358 pp. online review
Race relations
- Bates, Jason L., "Consolidating Support for a Law 'Incapable of Enforcement': Segregation on Tennessee Streetcars, 1900–1930," Journal of Southern History, 82 (Feb. 2016), 97–126. excerpt
- Bontemps, Arna. William C. Handy: Father of the Blues: An Autobiography. Macmillan Company: New York, 1941.
- Cartwright, Joseph H. The Triumph of Jim Crow: Tennessee's Race Relations in the 1880s. University of Tennessee Press, 1976.
- Cimprich, John. Slavery's End in Tennessee (U of Alabama Press, 2002).
- Cimprich, John. "The Beginning of the Black Suffrage Movement in Tennessee, 1864-65." Journal of Negro History 65.3 (1980): 185-195. in JSTOR
- Cumfer, Cynthia. Separate Peoples, One Land: The Minds of Cherokees, Blacks and Whites on the Tennessee Frontier (Chapel Hill, 2007). online
- Fleming, Cynthia G. “We Shall Overcome: Tennessee and the Civil Rights Movement,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 54 (1995): 232-45
- Franklin, Jimmie Lewis. "Civil Rights Movement" Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture (2021) online
- Honey, Michael K. Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers. University of Illinois Press, 1993.
- Kyriakoudes, Louis M. The Social Origins of the Urban South: Race, Gender, and Migration in Nashville and Middle Tennessee, 1890-1930 (2003).
- Lamon, Lester C. Blacks in Tennessee, 1791–1970. (U of Tennessee Press, 1980).
- McDonald, Jessie Daniel. "An historical study on the effects of case Brown v. Board of Education in Nashville, Tennessee in 2001" (Tennessee State University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2002. 3061763).
- Phillips, Paul David. "White Reaction to the Freedmen's Bureau in Tennessee." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 25.1 (1966): 50-62. in JSTOR
- Taylor, Alrutheus A. Negro in Tennessee 1865–1880 (1974) ISBN 0-87152-165-2
- Van West, Carroll, ed. Trial and Triumph: Essays in Tennessee's African-American History (2002)
- Wynn, Linda T. "The Dawning of a New Day: The Nashville Sit-Ins, February 13-May 10, 1960," Tennessee Historical Quarterly 50#1 (1991): 42-54
Historiography and memory
- Bucy, Carole Stanford. "Tennessee in the Twentieth Century." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 69#3 (2010), pp. 262–273. online
- Clark, Vincent L. "Editor's Note: The State Of Local History." West Tennessee Historical Society Papers (2012), Vol. 66, p1-7. Focus on internet resources.
- de Velasco, Antonio. " 'I’m a Southerner, Too': Confederate Monuments and Black Southern Counterpublics in Memphis, Tennessee." Southern Communication Journal 84.4 (2019): 233-245. online
- Guttormson, Elaura D. "Stewardship of the Land and Stewardship of the Past: Tennessee Agricultural History and Public History". (PhD Diss. Middle Tennessee State University, 2022) online.
- Holladay, Robert. "Antebellum Tennessee Historiography: A Critical Appraisal." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 69#3 (2010), pp 224–241 online
- Ray, Kristofer. "New Directions in Early Tennessee History, 1540―1815." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 69#3 (2010) pp. 204–223. online
- Rhodes, Miranda Fraley. " 'For Weal or Woe' Tennessee History from the Civil War to the Early Twentieth Century." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 69.3 (2010): 242-261. Online
External links
- Tennessee Historical Society
- East Tennessee Historical Society
- West Tennessee Historical Society
- Smoky Mountain Historical Society
- Boston Public Library, Map Center. Maps of Tennessee, various dates.
- Tennessee: State Resource Guide, from the Library of Congress