Kayapo language
Mẽbêngôkre (Kayapó) | |
---|---|
Mẽbêngôkre kabẽn | |
Pronunciation | [mẽbeŋoˈkɾɛ kaˈbɛ̃n] |
Native to | Kayapó, Xikrin, formerly also Irã'ãmrãnhre |
Native speakers | 8,638 (2010)[1] |
| |
Dialects |
|
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | txu |
Glottolog | kaya1330 |
ELP | Mebengokre |
Mẽbêngôkre, sometimes referred to as Kayapó (Mẽbêngôkre: Mẽbêngôkre kabẽn [mẽbeŋoˈkɾɛ kaˈbɛ̃n]) is a
Ethnography
The Mẽbêngôkre language is currently spoken by two
The label Kayapó (also spelled Caiapó or Kayapô) has at times been used synonymously with Mẽbêngôkre in the literature — that is, it has been taken to refer both to the Kayapó (stricto sensu) and to the Xikrin, as well as to the linguistic varieties spoken by these groups. In order to avoid ambiguity (and further confusion with the
: 91, fn. 41The first historical records of the Mẽbêngôkre language and culture made by Westerners date back to the end of the 19th century, when the French explorer Henri Coudreau came in contact with the Mẽbêngôkre-speaking Irã'ãmrãnhre group. Some records were made by the missionaries who arrived to Brazil later in the century to Christianize the indigenous people. Known authors of that period include Father Sebastião and Reverend Horace Banner, who lived among another Mẽbêngôkre (Kayapó) group known as Gorotire between 1937 and 1951.[3] Although, “the Mebengokre [have been in] permanent contact with the surrounding non-indigenous population at various times, in most cases [there have been] catastrophic consequences.[2] The Irã'ãmrãnhre are now extinct, and the population of the Gorotire group decreased by 80% during the first years of contact. Following such brutal experiences, some small groups refused to be approached by investigators and remain uncontacted around the Xingu and Curuá rivers.
Since the exploration period, academic linguists and anthropologists have investigated the Mẽbêngôkre and have successfully acquired a body of knowledge about this indigenous group. Since the early writings on the grammar of Mẽbêngôkre by the
Furthermore, the Brazilian organization ProDocult began a documentation project of the Kayapó language and culture in April 2009 and thus far have produced "150 hours of video recording, 15 hours of audio recording and more than 6,000 digital photos, in addition to ... films [containing] records of "culture" Mebengokre, and how could it be ... highly dynamic [in its] creative aspect."[8]
Phonology
The phonological inventory of Mẽbêngôkre is composed of 16 consonants and 17 vowels,[9] including oral and nasal vowels. Mẽbêngokre has a series of voiced oral stops, which makes it unique among the Northern Jê languages in employing the feature [voice] for establishing phonological oppositions. All other Northern Jê languages lost Proto-Northern Jê voiced obstruents through devoicing.[10]: 85
Consonants
Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stop
|
voiceless | p ⟨p⟩ | t ⟨t⟩
|
t͡ʃ ⟨x⟩ | k ⟨k⟩ | ʔ ⟨’⟩ |
voiced | b ⟨b⟩ | d ⟨d⟩
|
d͡ʒ ⟨dj⟩ | g ⟨g⟩ | ||
Nasal | m ⟨m⟩ | n ⟨n⟩
|
ɲ ⟨nh⟩ | ŋ ⟨ng⟩ | ||
Liquid | w ⟨w⟩ | ɾ ⟨r⟩ | j ⟨j⟩ |
The consonant /d/ (as in jaduj 'short', krwỳdy 'beak') is exceedingly rare; /t͡ʃ/ (as in xãn 'cat', jaxwe 'naughtly') is rare in the onset position. The consonant /ɾ/ in the coda position is always followed by an epenthetic echo vowel, which may be an exact copy of the preceding vowel or [i] (if the preceding vowel is /a/ or sometimes /ɔ ʌ/). That way, the words /paɾ/ 'his/her foot' and /puɾ/ 'garden' are pronounced [ˈpaɾi], [ˈpuɾu] (and written pari, puru).
Vowels
Oral
|
Nasal | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
i ⟨i⟩ | ɯ ⟨y⟩ | u ⟨u⟩ | ĩ ⟨ĩ⟩ | ɯ̃ ⟨ỹ⟩ | ũ ⟨ũ⟩ |
e ⟨ê⟩ | ɤ ⟨ỳ⟩ | o ⟨ô⟩ | ẽ ⟨ẽ⟩ | õ ⟨õ⟩ | |
ɛ ⟨e⟩ | ʌ ⟨à⟩ | ɔ ⟨o⟩ | ʌ̃ ⟨ã⟩ | ||
a ⟨a⟩ | ã ⟨ã⟩ |
The vowels /ã/ (as in mrã 'to walk', xãn 'cat') and /ũ/ (as in tũm 'old') are rare and mostly go back to earlier oral vowels /a/ and /u/ in certain environments. The vowel /ɯ̃/ (as in nhỹ 'to sit') is also somewhat rare.
In some analyses, Mẽbêngôkre has five diphthongs which occur word-finally only: uwa /uᵊ/, ija /iᵊ/, eje /ɛᵊ/, ôwa /oᵊ/, ĩja /ĩᵊ/. These are realized phonetically as [ˈuwa], [ˈija], [ˈɛjɛ], [ˈowa], [ˈĩj̃ã].[5]: 69 Other authors analyze them as monophthongs followed by a glide (/w/ or /j/) in the coda position, which is followed by an epenthetic echo vowel. Some examples follow.
spelling | pronunciation | diphthong analysis | vowel + glide analysis | translation |
---|---|---|---|---|
muwa | [ˈmuwa] | /muᵊ/ | /muw/ | to cry |
kruwa | [ˈkɾuwa] | /kɾuᵊ/ | /kɾuw/ | arrow |
krija | [ˈkɾija] | /kɾiᵊ/ | /kɾij/ | to raise (pets) |
ngija | [ˈŋija] | /ŋiᵊ/ | /ŋij/ | large American opossum
|
jabeje | [jaˈbɛjɛ] | /jabɛᵊ/ | /jabɛj/ | to look for |
ngrôwa | [ˈŋɾowa] | /ŋɾoᵊ/ | /ŋɾow/ | moriche palm
|
wapĩja | [waˈpĩj̃ã] | /wapĩᵊ/ | /wapĩj/ | black caracara |
onĩja or nĩjari | [ɔˈnĩj̃ã], [ˈnĩj̃ãɾi] | /ɔ=nĩᵊ/, /nĩᵊ-ɾi/ | /ɔ=nĩj/, /nĩj-ɾi/ | far (Kayapó dialect) |
Syllable structure
The maximal syllable structure of Mẽbêngôkre is /CCCVC/. Any consonant may occur as a simple onset. Complex onsets may by formed by a combination of one of /p b m k ŋ/ and one of /ɾ j/ (pr-, br-, mr-, kr-, ngr-, pj-, mj-, bj-, kj-, ngj-); /t n ɾ t͡ʃ d͡ʒ ɲ k ŋ kɾ ŋɾ/ can also combine with /w/ (tw-, nw-, rw-, xw-, djw-, nhw-, kw-, ngw-, krw-, ngrw-). The coda may be any of /p t t͡ʃ k m n ɲ ɾ j/ (in analyses which do not recognize the existence of diphthongs, also /w/).
Stress
In Mẽbêngôkre, the stress is fixed on the final underlying syllable. Epenthetic vowels (echo vowels) are absent from the phonological representation and are thus unstressed (as in pari /paɾ/ [ˈpaɾi] 'his/her foot'). In diphthongs, the leftmost element is stressed (as in ngija /ŋiᵊ/ [ˈŋija] 'skunk'). The diminutive clitic -re is unstressed, as in ngôre [ˈŋoɾɛ] 'his/her louse'.
Morphology
Finiteness morphology
As in all other Northern Jê languages, Mẽbêngôkre verbs inflect for finiteness and thus have a basic opposition between a finite form and a nonfinite form. Finite forms are used in matrix clauses only, whereas nonfinite forms are used in all types of subordinate clauses as well as in some matrix clauses (with a particular aspectual interpretation). The morphology associated with the finite/nonfinite distinction includes suffixation and/or prefix substitution.[9] Some verbs lack an overt finiteness distinction.
The following nonfinite suffixes occur in the language: -rV (the most common option, found in many transitive and intransitive verbs) and its allomorph -n (following front nasal vowels), -nh (found chiefly in transitive verbs), as well as -k, -m, and -x (found in a handful of intransitive verbs).
finite | nonfinite | gloss |
---|---|---|
suffix -rV | ||
mõ | mõrõ | to go (PL) |
karê | karêrê | to weed |
kuno | kunoro | to chase |
kato | katoro | to exit |
muwa | mỳrỳ | to cry |
suffix -n | ||
krẽ | krẽn | to eat (SG) |
bĩ | bĩn | to kill (SG) |
suffix -nh | ||
mrã | mrãnh | to walk |
djumjã | djumjãnh | to chew |
kwỹrỹ | kwỹnh | to break |
nhu | nhunh | to dry in the sun |
kadjô | kadjônh | to tear |
suffix -k | ||
ty | tyk | to die |
ruwa ~ rwỳ | rwỳk | to descend |
suffix -m | ||
tẽ | tẽm | to go (SG) |
ikõ | kõm | to drink |
dja | djãm | to stand (SG) |
suffix -x | ||
wangija | ŋgjêx | to enter (PL) |
In a handful of verbs, all of which end in an underlying stop, the nonfinite form does not receive any overt suffixes, but it is nevertheless distinct from the finite form because the latter lenites the stem-final consonant (-t, -k → -rV, -rV).[11]: 544
finite | nonfinite | gloss |
---|---|---|
xêrê | xêt | to burn |
ngõrõ | nhõt | to sleep |
kari | kak | to cough |
djukrari | djukrak | to belch |
pôrô | pôk | to burn, to ignite |
ajkjêrê | jajkjêk | to yawn |
Erstwhile palatalizing prefix
A small set of verbs form their nonfinite forms by employing one of the aforementioned processes and a morphophonological process whereby the onset of the stressed syllable changes to dj, ’, or is deleted, whereas the nucleus of the stressed syllable is raised (if possible). This has been attributed to the influence of an underlying palatalizing nonfinite prefix in
finite | nonfinite | gloss |
---|---|---|
kaba | kadjàrà | to extract (SG) |
ga | djàrà | to roast (SG) |
kuto (PL jato) | kuônh (PL jaônh) | to ignite |
katwỳ | ka’uk | to grind, to pound |
kate | ka’êk | to break into pieces |
kujate | kujaêk | to push, to move away |
ngõrõ | nhõt | to sleep |
ngã | nhõrõ (Kayapó), nhãrã (Xikrin) | to give |
(krã)ta | (krã)yry | to cut off (SG) |
anẽ | anhỹrỹ | to do so, to say so |
Prefix substitution or loss
In addition to the aforementioned processes, the finiteness inflection may involve prefix substitution or loss. For example, the valency-reducing prefixes are a(j)- (
: 54–5 In addition, some verbs which denote physiological activities or movement have a prefix (i- and wa-, respectively) in their finite forms but not in the nonfinite form.finite | nonfinite | gloss |
---|---|---|
anticausatives | ||
ajkadjô | bikadjônh | to tear (ANTIC) |
abdju | bibdjuru | to hide (ANTIC) |
akuno | biknoro | to get lost |
antipassives | ||
aptà | djàptàrà | to block |
abô | djàbôrô | to whistle |
ajarẽ | djujarẽnh | to tell, to narrate |
physiological verbs | ||
ikõ | kõm | to drink |
itu | turu | to urinate |
ikuwa | kwỳrỳ | to defecate |
ipê | pêk | to fart |
movement verbs | ||
wajêt | jêt | to hang (SG) |
wadjà | djàrà | to enter (SG) |
wangija | ngjêx | to enter (PL) |
Person inflection and case
In Mẽbêngôkre,
The person prefixes which index the internal argument of verbs, postpositions, and nouns are as follows.[12]: 41
Absolutive | Accusative | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
singular | paucal | plural | singular | paucal | plural | ||
1st person | exclusive | i- | ari i- | mẽ i- | i- | ari i- | mẽ i- |
inclusive | ɡu ba- | ɡuaj ba- | (gu) mẽ ba- | ɡu ba- | ɡuaj ba- | (gu) mẽ ba- | |
2nd person | a- | ari a- | mẽ a- | a- | ari a- | mẽ a- | |
3rd person | Ø- (+ elision of a stem-initial dj-/j-/nh-) | ari Ø- (+ elision of a stem-initial dj-/j-/nh-) | mẽ Ø- (+ elision of a stem-initial dj-/j-/nh-) | ku- | ari ku- | mẽ ku- |
The nominative and ergative forms of the pronouns are as follows.[12]: 40–1
Nominative | Ergative | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
singular | paucal | plural | singular | paucal | plural | ||
1st person | exclusive | ba | ba ari | ba mẽ | ije | ari ije | mẽ ije |
inclusive | ɡu | ɡuaj | ɡu mẽ | ɡu baje | ɡuaj baje | (gu) mẽ baje | |
2nd person | ɡa | ɡa ari | ɡa mẽ | aje | ari aje | mẽ aje | |
3rd person | Ø | ari | mẽ | kute | ari kute | mẽ kute |
The pronouns have also an emphatic form, which is used when a pronoun is focalized and can also be considered a grammatical case on its own.
Emphatic | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
singular | paucal | plural | ||
1st person | exclusive | ba | ari ba | mẽ ba |
inclusive | ɡu ba | ɡuaj ba | ɡu mẽ ba | |
2nd person | ɡa | ari ɡa | mẽ ɡa | |
3rd person | Ø | ari | mẽ |
Nominative case
The nominative case expresses the subject of a transitive or intransitive verb.
Ergative case
The ergative case marks the
Djàm
‘Don’t you see it?’
Absolutive case
In nonfinite clauses, the absolutive case encodes the sole participant (subject) in intransitive verbs and the
∅-Wỳ-rỳ
‘She/he is bathing / going to bathe.’
It is also used to encode the
Accusative case
The accusative case encodes the
Voice
In Mẽbêngôkre, transitive verbs may be detransitivized by means of an
transitive | intransitivized | gloss |
---|---|---|
anticausatives | ||
pudju | abdju / bibdjuru | to hide (TR) → to hide (ANTIC) |
kamẽ | ajkamẽ / bikamẽnh | to push → to move away |
kuno | akuno / biknoro | to chase → to get lost |
antipassives | ||
jarẽ | ajarẽ / djujarẽnh | to say → to narrate |
ku | aku / djàkuru | to eat.PL → to eat.ANTIP |
ma | — / djumari | to hear (something) → to listen |
Derivational morphology
Diminutive and augmentative
Mẽbêngôkre makes use of a diminutive suffix -re (which is always unstressed; after -t it has the allomorph -e, and after nasals it surfaces as -ne) and of an augmentative suffix -ti (which is always stressed). These attach to nouns and abundantly occur in the names of animal and plant species. The combination of -ti and -re is used in a number of nouns which denote human collectives, such as Gorotire and Mẽtyktire (names of Mẽbêngôkre subdivisions).
Non-productive affixes
In Mẽbêngôkre, many predicates appear to contain fossilized prefixes of different shapes (such as ka-, nhõ-, ku-, py-/pu-, ja-, dju-, nhĩ-), whose semantic contribution is not always straightforward. These have been variously referred to as classifiers[14]: 100 or transitivity prefixes.[11]: 539–40
Reduplication
Reduplication may be used to convey repeated action and possibly transitivity, as in the following examples:[13]
totyktyk ‘to strike repeatedly’ | totyk ‘to strike’ |
kyjkyj ‘to make many scratches’ | kyj ‘a scratch or cut’ |
krãkrãk ‘to swallow’ | tokrãk ‘to swallow at once’ |
In some verbs, such as prõrprõt ‘to float up and down’, the final consonant of the reduplicated base changes from a stop /t/ to a rhotic /ɾ/.
Syntax
Mẽbêngôkre is a head-final language.
Morphosyntactic alignment
Prototypically, finite
Nonfinite clauses (including all embedded clauses) are headed by nonfinite verbs and are
Classes of predicates
The following table summarizes the proposed classes of predicates in Mẽbêngôkre.[15]
argument structure in finite clauses |
type | examples |
---|---|---|
PACC |
transitive verb (ku-class) | krẽ ‘to eat’ (SG) |
PABS |
transitive verb (default) | ’ôk ‘to paint’ |
SNOM | intransitive verb | tẽ ‘to go’ (SG) |
SABS | relational noun | ngryk ‘angry’ |
ExpDAT |
absolute noun + dative experiencer | prãm ‘to be hungry’ |
relational noun + dative experiencer | kĩnh ‘to like’ |
Transitive verbs
In Mẽbêngôkre, transitive verbs take accusative or absolutive patients in finite clauses, depending on the verb class. In nonfinite clauses, all transitive verbs take absolutive patients. Note that nouns do not receive any overt marking either in the accusative or in the absolutive case; the difference between these two cases is seen in the third person index, which takes the form ku- in the accusative case and ∅- in the absolutive case.
The transitive verbs which index their patient in the accusative case (in finite clauses) are known as ku-verbs. All ku-verbs are monosyllabic and have distinct finite and nonfinite forms. The remaining transitive verbs index their patient in the absolutive case. All verbs that belong to this class satisfy at least one of the following conditions:
- they contain at least two syllables (for example, pumũ ‘to see’, kaô ‘to suck’, ku’õ ‘to wash (solid objects)’),
- their finite and nonfinite forms are identical (for example, ’ôk ‘to paint’, kre ‘to plant’, djũn ‘to insult’).
Finite ku- verbs further differ from all other transitive verbs in that under certain circumstances they index their
Ga
‘You killed it.’
Intransitive verbs
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Semantics
Instruments, locations, and prototypical agents
Mẽbêngôkre extensively uses the nouns djà ‘container’ and djwỳnh ‘owner, master’ to denote instruments (or locations) and prototypical agents, respectively, as in idjàkuru djà ‘eating utensils; eating place; food’ (literally ‘the container of my eating’) or pi’ôk jarẽnh djwỳnh ‘teacher’ (literally ‘the owner of the telling of the book’). These nouns attach to the nonfinite (nominal) forms of verbs or to other nouns, and express meanings that in other languages are frequently conveyed by special kinds of nominalizations.[14]: 88
Tense and aspect
In Mẽbêngôkre, there is no morphological distinction between present and past, the completion or continuation of an action is determined by the narrative context. Aspectual distinctions may be conveyed by auxiliaries or by using a nonfinite form of a verb in an unembedded clause. The following sentence shows the role of verbal finiteness when determining aspect:[14]: 89–90
In the semantic interpretation of the first example, the position of the event with respect to the time of the utterance can only be determined by narrative context. In contrast, the occurrence of the nonfinite form of the verb in the second example makes the event not "anaphoric to discourse, but rather coterminous with the subject's lifespan (mutatis mutandis for inanimate subjects). This interpretation has been variously described as “stative” or “subject-oriented” (in the sense that it ascribes a property to the subject, rather than focusing on the event itself) in the descriptive literature.”[16]
Vocabulary
Kinship terms
Mẽbêngôkre has triadic kinship terms, which express at the same time the relation of a given referent both to the speaker and the addressee.[17]
Loanwords
Mẽbêngôkre has been in contact with the distantly related
Mẽbêngôkre word | gloss | source form | gloss |
---|---|---|---|
Loans from Karajá | |||
warikoko (Kayapó dialect) watkoko (Xikrin dialect) |
tobacco pipe | werikòkò (wèrikòkò, warikòkò) (female speech) | tobacco pipe |
rara | kind of basket | lala | kind of basket |
wiwi | song, chant | wii (Xambioá and North Karajá dialects, male speech) | Example |
bikwa | relative, friend | bikòwa (female speech) | relative, friend |
bero | puba flour | bèrò | puba flour |
rorirori | kind of headdress | lòrilòri | kind of headdress |
warabaê | kind of basket | wrabahu ~ wrabahi ~ wrabahy | kind of basket |
waxi (Xikrin dialect) | fishing line | waxi | fishhook |
benorã (Xikrin dialect) | Cichla monoculus | bènora | Cichla monoculus |
awo | tree sp. (Xikrin dialect) ubá boat (Irã'ãmrãnhre dialect) |
awò (Xambioá dialect, male speech) | canoe |
ixe (Kayapó dialect) ixere (Xikrin dialect) |
mirror | itxèrèna | mirror |
Loans from Yudjá
| |||
karaxu | spoon | karaxu | spoon |
awa | bird sp. ( Troglodytidae ) |
uxixi auahanu | Campylorhynchus turdinus
|
Loans from Língua Geral Amazônica
| |||
môtôbi’y (Xikrin dialect) | peanut | mũnduβi | peanut |
xãn | domestic cat | piʃãna | domestic cat |
mokà | bag made of tucum fiber | #mboko | kind of bag |
xoko | rufescent tiger heron | soko | heron |
Loans from an unidentified Tupi-Guarani language (dubious)
| |||
’ôkti, ’ôkre | kind of potato | #ʔok | tuber |
jaduj | short | #jatu-ʔi | short (diminutive) |
Loans from a hypothetical extinct Northern Jê language | |||
karinhô | tobacco | #kariɲo (< *karên-cô) | tobacco leaf |
xururu | black-fronted nunbird | #tʃuɾuɾ (< *ĵôrôr) | black-fronted nunbird |
Loans from Brazilian Portuguese | |||
kape | coffee | café | coffee |
kaĩ | wheelbarrow | carrinho | wheelbarrow, cart |
kratô | tractor | trator | tractor |
kubẽta | blanket | coberta | blanket |
xibôrô | onion | cebola | onion |
mukutêru | mosquito net | mosquiteiro | mosquito net |
mikrôni | minivan | micro-ônibus | minivan |
mãmãj | mother | mamãe | mom |
papaj | father | papai | dad |
wowo | grandmother | vovó | grandma |
wôwô | grandfather | vovô | grandpa |
xiw | uncle | tio | uncle |
xija | aunt | tia | aunt |
paku (Kayapó dialect) | pacu | pacu | pacu |
References
- ^ Mẽbêngôkre (Kayapó) at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ a b Salanova, Andres. "Mebengokre". Archived from the original on 26 October 2018. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
- ^ a b Verswijver, Gustaff. "Kayapó." Enciclopédia dos Povos Indígenas no Brasil. 2002. https://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/Kayapô/print Accessed 30 September 2016.
- ^ “Kayapô/Mebengokre” Encontro Do Culturas. 2012. http://www.encontrodeculturas.com.br/2012/artista/Kayapô-mebengokre Accessed 30 September 2016.
- ^ a b c d Salanova, Andrés Pablo; Nikulin, Andrey (2020). "A história que conta o léxico Mẽbêngôkre". Revista de Letras Norte@mentos. 13 (33): 52–106.
- ^ Turner, Terence. “Os Mebengokre Kayapô: Historia E Mudança Social, De comunidades autónomas para a coexistência interétnica.” 1992. Translated by Beatriz Moises. http://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local--files/hist%3Ap311-338/p311-338_Turner_Os_Mebengokre_Kayapô.pdf Accessed 30 September 2016.
- ^ Ferreira Borges, Marília (1995). "Aspectos morfossintáticos das relações genitivas na língua Kayapó". Moara. 4: 77–82.
- ^ Kayapó." ProDocult. 2015.http://prodocult.museudoindio.gov.br/etnias/Kayapô/projeto Accessed 30 September 2016.
- ^ a b c Salanova, Andrés Pablo (May 2001). A nasalidade em Mebengokre e Apinayé: O limite do vozeamento soante (PDF) (MA thesis). Campinas: Universidade Estadual de Campinas.
- ^ a b Nikulin, Andrey (2020). Proto-Macro-Jê: um estudo reconstrutivo (PDF) (Ph.D. dissertation). Brasília: Universidade de Brasília.
- ^ S2CID 204369114.
- ^ a b c Reis Silva, Maria Amélia (August 2001). Pronomes, ordem e ergatividade em Mebengokre (Kayapó) (PDF) (MA thesis). Campinas: Universidade Estadual de Campinas.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-27240-8.
- ^ hdl:1721.1/41697.
- ^ a b Salanova, Andrés Pablo (2008). "Uma análise unificada das construções ergativas do Mẽbengokre" (PDF). Amerindia. 33: 109–34.
- ^ Salanova, Andrés Pablo. "The building blocks of aspectual interpretation". In Deal, Amy Rose (ed.). Proceedings of Semantics of Under-represented languages of the Americas (SULA) IV (PDF). Amherst: GLSA. pp. 215–29.
- .
- ^ Ribeiro, Eduardo Rivail (2012). A grammar of Karajá (Ph.D. dissertation). Chicago: University of Chicago.
See also
- Kayapo people