Loggerhead sea turtle
Loggerhead sea turtle | |
---|---|
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Reptilia |
Order: | Testudines |
Suborder: | Cryptodira |
Superfamily: | Chelonioidea |
Family: | Cheloniidae |
Subfamily: | Carettinae
|
Genus: | Caretta Rafinesque, 1814 |
Species: | C. caretta
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Binomial name | |
Caretta caretta | |
Loggerhead sea turtle range according to the Food and Agriculture Organization
Species synonymy
Genus synonymy
|
The loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) is a
The loggerhead sea turtle is found in the
The loggerhead sea turtle is omnivorous, feeding mainly on bottom-dwelling invertebrates. Its large and powerful jaws serve as an effective tool for dismantling its prey. Young loggerheads are exploited by numerous predators; the eggs are especially vulnerable to terrestrial organisms. Once the turtles reach adulthood, their formidable size limits predation to large marine animals, such as large sharks.
The loggerhead sea turtle is considered a vulnerable species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. In total, 9 distinct population segments are under the protection of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, with 4 population segments classified as "threatened" and 5 classified as "endangered"[6] Commercial international trade of loggerheads or derived products is prohibited by
Taxonomy
Carl Linnaeus gave the loggerhead its first binomial name, Testudo caretta, in 1758.[4][8] Thirty-five other names emerged over the following two centuries, with the combination Caretta caretta first introduced in 1873 by Leonhard Stejneger.[5] The English common name "loggerhead" refers to the animal's large head.[9][10] The loggerhead sea turtle belongs to the family Cheloniidae, which includes all extant sea turtles except the leatherback sea turtle.[11] The subspecific classification of the loggerhead sea turtle is debated, but most authors consider it a single polymorphic species.[12] Molecular genetics has confirmed hybridization of the loggerhead sea turtle with the Kemp's ridley sea turtle, hawksbill sea turtle, and green sea turtles. The extent of natural hybridization is not yet determined; however, second-generation hybrids have been reported, suggesting some hybrids are fertile.[13]
Evolution
Although evidence is lacking,
Around three million years ago, during the Pliocene epoch, Central America emerged from the sea, effectively cutting off currents between the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific Oceans. The rerouting of ocean currents led to climatic changes as the Earth entered a glacial cycle. Cold water upwelling around the Cape of Good Hope and reduction in water temperature at Cape Horn formed coldwater barriers to migrating turtles. The result was a complete isolation of the Atlantic and Pacific populations of loggerheads.[15] During the most recent ice age, the beaches of southeastern North America were too cold for sea turtle eggs. As the Earth began to warm, loggerheads moved farther north, colonizing the northern beaches. Because of this, turtles nesting between North Carolina and northern Florida represent a different genetic population from those in southern Florida.[15]
The distinct populations of loggerheads have unique characteristics and genetic differences. For example, Mediterranean loggerheads are smaller, on average, than Atlantic Ocean loggerheads.
Description
The loggerhead sea turtle is the world's largest hard-shelled turtle, slightly larger at average and maximum mature weights than the
The turtle's shell is divided into two sections: carapace and plastron. The carapace is further divided into large plates, or
Sexual dimorphism of the loggerhead sea turtle is only apparent in adults. Adult males have longer tails and claws than females. The males' plastrons are shorter than the females', presumably to accommodate the males' larger tails. The carapaces of males are wider and less domed than the females', and males typically have wider heads than females.[23] The sex of juveniles and subadults cannot be determined through external anatomy, but can be observed through dissection, laparoscopy (an operation performed on the abdomen), histological examination (cell anatomy), and radioimmunological assays (immune study dealing with radiolabeling).[23]
The skull is most easily distinguished from other sea turtles by having maxillae that meet in the mid-line of the palate.[26][27] The portion of skull behind the eyes is also relatively large and bulbous due to the extensive jaw muscles.[27]
Distribution
The loggerhead sea turtle has a cosmopolitan distribution, nesting over the broadest geographical range of any sea turtle. It inhabits the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans and the Mediterranean Sea.[28]
In the Atlantic Ocean, the greatest concentration of loggerheads is along the southeastern coast of North America and in the Gulf of Mexico. Very few loggerheads are found along the European and African coastlines.
In the Indian Ocean, loggerheads feed along the coastlines of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and in the Arabian Sea.[16] Along the African coastline, loggerheads nest from Mozambique's Bazaruto Archipelago to South Africa's St Lucia estuary.[30] The largest Indian Ocean nesting site is Oman, on the Arabian Peninsula, which hosts around 15,000 nests, giving it the second largest nesting population of loggerheads in the world. Western Australia is another notable nesting area, with 1,000–2,000 nests per year.[16]
Pacific loggerheads live in
The Mediterranean Sea is a nursery for juveniles, as well as a common place for adults in the spring and summer months.[29][35] Almost 45% of the Mediterranean juvenile population has migrated from the Atlantic.[29] Loggerheads feed in the Alboran Sea and the Adriatic Sea,[29] with tens of thousands of specimens (mainly sub-adult) seasonally present in the North-Eastern portion of the latter, above all in the area of the Po Delta.[36] Greece is the most popular nesting site along the Mediterranean, with more than 3,000 nests per year.[16] Zakynthos hosts the largest Mediterranean nesting with the second one being in Kyparissia Bay.[37] Because of this, Greek authorities do not allow planes to take off or land at night in Zakynthos due to the nesting turtles.[38] In addition to the Greek coast, the coastlines of Cyprus and Turkey are also common nesting sites.[16]
One record of this turtle was made in Ireland when a specimen washed ashore on Ballyhealy Beach in County Wexford.[39] Another records one specimen being washed up on a beach in County Donegal, Ireland.[40]
Habitat
Loggerhead sea turtles spend most of their lives in the open ocean and in shallow coastal waters. They rarely come ashore besides the females' brief visits to construct nests and deposit eggs. Hatchling loggerhead turtles live in floating mats of Sargassum algae.[41] Adults and juveniles live along the continental shelf as well as in shallow coastal estuaries.[42] In the northwestern Atlantic Ocean, age plays a factor in habitat preference. Juveniles are more frequently found in shallow estuarine habitats with limited ocean access compared to non-nesting adults.[43] Loggerheads occupy waters with surface temperatures ranging from 13.3–28 °C (56–82 °F) during non-nesting season. Temperatures from 27–28 °C (81–82 °F) are most suitable for nesting females.[44]
Juvenile loggerheads share the Sargassum habitat with a variety of other organisms. The mats of Sargassum contain as many as 100 different species of animals on which the juveniles feed. Prey found in Sargassum mats may include barnacles, crab larvae, fish eggs, and hydrozoan colonies. Some prey, such as ants, flies, aphids, leafhoppers, and beetles, are carried by the wind to the mats.[41] Marine mammals and commercial fishes, including tuna and mahi-mahi, also inhabit the Sargassum mats.[45]
Behavior
Loggerhead sea turtles observed in captivity and in the wild are most active during the day. In captivity, the loggerheads' daily activities are divided between swimming and resting on the bottom. While resting, they spread their forelimbs to about midstroke swimming position. They remain motionless with eyes open or half-shut and are easily alerted during this state. At night, captives sleep in the same position with their eyes tightly shut, and are slow to react.[44] Loggerheads spend up to 85% of their day submerged, with males being the more active divers than females. The average duration of dives is 15–30 min, but they can stay submerged for up to four hours.[46] Juvenile loggerheads and adults differ in their swimming methods. A juvenile keeps its forelimbs pressed to the side of its carapace, and propels itself by kicking with its hind limbs. As the juvenile matures, its swimming method is progressively replaced with the adult's alternating-limb method. They depend entirely on this method of swimming by one year old.[47]
Water temperature affects the sea turtle's metabolic rate.
Female-female aggression, which is fairly rare in other marine
Feeding
The loggerhead sea turtle is omnivorous, feeding mainly on bottom-dwelling
Loggerheads crush prey with their large and powerful jaws.[9][54] Projecting scale points on the anterior margin of the forelimbs allow manipulation of the food. These points can be used as "pseudo-claws" to tear large pieces of food in the loggerhead's mouth. The loggerhead will turn its neck sideways to consume the torn food on the scale points.[54] Inward-pointing, mucus-covered papillae found in the fore region of the loggerhead's esophagus filter out foreign bodies, such as fish hooks. The next region of the esophagus is not papillated, with numerous mucosal folds. The digestion rate in loggerheads is temperature-dependent; it increases as temperature increases.[54]
Predators
Loggerheads have numerous predators, especially early in their lives. Egg and nestling predators include
In Australia, the introduction of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) by British settlers in the 19th century led to significant reductions in loggerhead sea turtle populations. In one coastal section in eastern Australia during the 1970s, predation of turtle eggs destroyed up to 95% of all clutches laid.[59] Aggressive efforts to destroy foxes in the 1980s and 1990s has reduced this impact; however, it is estimated that it will be the year 2020 before populations will experience complete recovery from such dramatic losses.[60]
Along the southeastern coast of the United States, the raccoon (Procyon lotor) is the most destructive predator of nesting sites. Mortality rates of nearly 100% of all clutches laid in a season have been recorded on some Florida beaches.[59] This is attributed to an increase in raccoon populations, which have flourished in urban environments. Aggressive efforts to protect nesting sites by covering them with wire mesh has significantly reduced the impact of raccoon predation on loggerhead sea turtle eggs.[60]
Up to 40% of nesting females around the world have wounds believed to come from shark attacks.[58]
Disease and parasites
Infectious bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Salmonella attack loggerhead hatchlings and eggs. Fungi such as Penicillium infect loggerhead sea turtle nests and cloacae.[58]
More than 100 species of animals from 13
In 2018, researchers from
Life history
Early life
Hatchlings range in color from light brown to almost black, lacking the adult's distinct yellows and reds.
After incubating for around 80 days, hatchlings dig through the sand to the surface, usually at night, when darkness increases the chance of escaping predation and damage from extreme sand surface temperatures is reduced.[66] Hatchlings enter the ocean by navigating toward the brighter horizon created by the reflection of the moon and starlight off the water's surface.[68]
Hatchlings can lose up to 20% of their body mass due to evaporation of water as they journey from nest to ocean.
Maturation
When ocean waters cool, loggerheads must migrate to warmer areas or hibernate to some degree. In the coldest months, they submerge for up to seven hours at a time, emerging for only seven minutes to breathe. Although outdone by freshwater turtles, these are among the longest recorded dives for any air-breathing marine vertebrate.[71] During their seasonal migration, juvenile loggerheads have the ability to use both magnetic and visual cues.[72] When both aids are available, they are used in conjunction; if one aid is not available, the other suffices.[72] The turtles swim at about 1.6 km/h (0.9 kn; 0.4 m/s) during migration.[73]
Like all marine turtles, the loggerhead prepares for reproduction in its foraging area. This takes place several years before the loggerhead migrates to a mating area.[74] Female loggerheads first reproduce at ages 28–33 in Southeastern United States and Australia, and at ages 17–30 in South Africa. Age at first reproduction in the Mediterranean, Oman, Japan, and Brazil are unknown.[75] Nesting loggerheads have a straight carapace length of 70–109 cm (28–43 in). Because of the large range, carapace length is not a reliable indicator of sexual maturity.[76] Their estimated maximum lifespan is 47–67 years in the wild.[52]
Reproduction
Female loggerheads first reproduce between the ages of 17 and 33,[75] and their mating period may last more than six weeks.[74] They court their mates, but these behaviors have not been thoroughly examined.[77] Male forms of courtship behavior include nuzzling, biting, and head and flipper movements.[77] Studies suggest females produce cloacal pheromones to indicate reproductive ability.[77] Before mating, the male approaches a female and attempts to mount her, while she resists. Next, the male and female begin to circle each other. If the male has competitors, the female may let the males struggle with each other. The winner then mounts the female; the male's curved claws usually damage the shoulders of the female's shell during this process. Other courting males bite the male while he is attempting to copulate, damaging his flippers and tail, possibly exposing bones. Such damage can cause the male to dismount and may require weeks to heal.[77]
While nesting, females produce an average of 3.9 egg clutches, and then become quiescent, producing no eggs for two to three years.
Loggerheads may display
All sea turtles have similar basic nesting behaviors. Females return to lay eggs at intervals of 12–17 days during the nesting season, on or near the beach where they hatched.[77][78] They exit the water, climb the beach, and scrape away the surface sand to form a body pit. With their hind limbs, they excavate an egg chamber in which the eggs are deposited. The females then cover the egg chamber and body pit with sand, and finally return to the sea.[83] This process takes one to two hours, and occurs in open sand areas or on top of sand dunes, preferably near dune grasses that the females can use to camouflage the nest.[78] The nesting area must be selected carefully because it affects characteristics such as fitness, emergence ratio, and vulnerability to nest predators.[66] Loggerheads have an average clutch size of 112.4 eggs.[84]
Conservation
Many human activities have negative effects on loggerhead sea turtle populations. The prolonged time required for loggerheads to reach sexual maturity and the high mortality rates of eggs and young turtles from natural phenomena compound the problems of population reduction as a consequence of human activities.[85]
Threats
Loggerhead sea turtles were once intensively hunted for their meat and
The US West Coast is a critical migratory corridor for the Pacific loggerheads, in which these turtles swim across the Pacific to California's coast from breeding grounds in Japan. Important foraging habitats for juveniles in the central North Pacific have been revealed through telemetry studies.[89] Along with these foraging habitats, high levels of bycatch from industrial-scale fisheries have been found to overlap; with drift gillnets in the past and longline fisheries presently.[89] Many juvenile loggerheads aggregate off the coast of Baja California Sur, Mexico, where small coastal fisheries increase these turtles' mortality risk; fishers have reported catching dozens of loggerheads with bottom-set gear per day per boat.[89] The most common commercial fishery that accidentally takes loggerheads are bottom trawls used for shrimp vessels in the Gulf of California.[90] In 2000, between 2,600 and 6,000 loggerheads were estimated to have been killed by pelagic longlining in the Pacific.[89]
Fishing gear is the biggest threat to loggerheads in the open ocean. They often become entangled in
Nearly 11 million metric tons of plastic are released into the ocean annually. A number that is projected to increase to 29 million metric tons by 2040.
Artificial lighting discourages nesting and interferes with the hatchlings' ability to navigate to the water's edge. Females prefer nesting on beaches free of artificial lighting. On developed beaches, nests are often clustered around tall buildings, perhaps because they block out the man-made light sources.[66] Loggerhead hatchlings are drawn toward the brighter area over the water which is the consequence of the reflection of moon and star light. Confused by the brighter artificial light, they navigate inland, away from the protective waters, which exposes them to dehydration and predation as the sun rises.[68] Artificial lighting causes tens of thousands of hatchling deaths per year.[94]
Destruction and encroachment of habitat by humans is another threat to loggerhead sea turtles. Optimum nesting beaches are open-sand beaches above the high-tide line. However, beach development deprives them of suitable nesting areas, forcing them to nest closer to the surf.[78] Urbanization often leads to the siltation of sandy beaches, decreasing their viability.[78] Construction of docks and marinas can destroy near-shore habitats. Boat traffic and dredging degrades habitat and can also injure or kill turtles when boats collide with turtles at or near the surface.[61]
Annual variations in climatic temperatures can affect sex ratios, since loggerheads have temperature-dependent sex determination. High sand temperatures may skew gender ratios in favor of females. Nesting sites exposed to unseasonably warm temperatures over a three-year period produced 87–99% females.[95] This raises concern over the connection between rapid global temperature changes and the possibility of population extinction.[96] A more localized effect on gender skewing comes from the construction of tall buildings, which reduce sun exposure, lowering the average sand temperature, which results in a shift in gender ratios to favor the emergence of male turtles.[78] Construction of new thermal power stations can raise local water temperature, which is also said to be a threat.[97]
The increase of temperature and food availability will increase reproduction output of loggerhead turtles. Many researchers agree that temperature increases due to climate change has a complicated impact on turtles. At breeding sites when a loggerhead turtle lays multiple clutches in a season, a higher temperature will cause the duration of time between laying two different nests to become shorter. The amount of food availability makes a difference in reproductive output because when there is a greater amount of food available, the turtles will grow to a larger size. The larger a turtle is, the more likely they will have a greater reproductive output. The amount of food also has a relationship to temperature. Researchers have found that an increase of temperature causes feeding grounds to produce more food.[98]
Conservation efforts
Since the loggerhead occupies such a broad range, successful conservation requires efforts from multiple countries.[9]
Loggerhead sea turtles are classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and are listed under Appendix I of the
In many places during the nesting season, workers and volunteers search the coastline for nests,[106] and researchers may also go out during the evening to look for nesting females for tagging studies and gather barnacles and tissues samples. Volunteers may, if necessary, relocate the nests for protection from threats, such as high spring tides and predators, and monitor the nests daily for disturbances. After the eggs hatch, volunteers uncover and tally hatched eggs, undeveloped eggs, and dead hatchlings. Any remaining live hatchlings are released or taken to research facilities. Typically, those that lack the vitality to hatch and climb to the surface die.[107]
United States
The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services (USFWS), and the Department of the Interior ruled four distinct population segments as threatened (Northwestern Atlantic Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean, Southeast Indo-Pacific Ocean, and Southwest Indian Ocean) and five as endangered (Mediterranean Sea, North Indian Ocean, North Pacific Ocean, Northeast Atlantic Ocean, and South Pacific Ocean) effective on October 24, 2011.[108]
Off the coast of southern California NMFS, NOAA, and
Critical habitat designation for the Northwest Atlantic Ocean DPS of loggerhead sea turtles specified 38 marine areas that include nearshore reproductive habitat, breeding areas, winter area, constricted migratory corridors, and Sargassum habitat.[112] This ruling was made the NMFS, NOAA, and Department of Commerce effective August 11, 2014.[112] Nesting beaches were identified as critical terrestrial habitat by Fish and Wildlife Services and the Department of the Interior within the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, effective August 11, 2014.[113] The 2012 BiOp is an integral component to managing the shallow-set fishery, because the one-year incidental take statement (ITS, including reasonable and prudent management measures, and terms and conditions) forms the basis for regulations that specify the annual limits on leatherback and North Pacific loggerhead sea turtle interactions with the fishery that are necessary to manage the impacts of the fishery on sea turtles.[114]
Effective January 11, 2010 the NMFS, NOAA, and Department of Commerce removed the limit on the number of fishing gear deployments for the Hawaii-based pelagic shallow-set longline fisheries and simultaneously increased the number of incidental interactions allowed with loggerhead sea turtles.[115] This ruling stated that longline fisheries may not interact with over 46 loggerhead sea turtles a year, a number thought to not interfere with survival and recovery of loggerhead sea turtles.[115] This ruling was revised March 10, 2011 to reduce the number of allowed interactions from 46 a year to 17, a revision aimed to protect the loggerheads and maintain fishery yield.[114] November 18, 2011 the pelagic shallow-set longline fisheries in Hawaii reached the annual limit on physical interactions with turtles and was closed by NMFS.[116] Incidental interaction limit for loggerhead turtles was increased from 17 to 34 interactions a year starting November 5, 2012.[117]
Symbols
The loggerhead sea turtle appears on the $1000
See also
- ocean basin.
- İztuzu Beach, one of the prime nesting habitats of the loggerhead turtle in the Mediterranean
- Sea turtle threats
References
Footnotes
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The project aims to create a monitoring and protection network for nesting and feeding sites in close collaboration with local communities, fishermen, travel operators and coastal developers.
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collect biopsy samples for DNA studies, cage nests to prevent egg depredation, record location of nests and non-nesting emergences.
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- ^ a b c d "Fisheries Off West Coast States; the Highly Migratory Species Fishery; Closure". Federal Register. 2014-07-25. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
- ^ "Fisheries Off West Coast States; the Highly Migratory Species Fishery; Closure". Federal Register. 2015-06-03. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
- ^ "Fisheries Off West Coast States; the Highly Migratory Species Fishery; Closure". Federal Register. 2016-06-03. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
- ^ a b "Endangered and Threatened Species: Critical Habitat for the Northwest Atlantic Ocean Loggerhead Sea Turtle Distinct Population Segment (DPS) and Determination Regarding Critical Habitat for the North Pacific Ocean Loggerhead DPS". Federal Register. 2014-07-10. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
- ^ "Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Designation of Critical Habitat for the Northwest Atlantic Ocean Distinct Population Segment of the Loggerhead Sea Turtle". Federal Register. 2014-07-10. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
- ^ a b "Western Pacific Pelagic Fisheries; Hawaii-Based Shallow-set Longline Fishery; Court Order". Federal Register. 2011-03-11. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
- ^ a b "International Fisheries Regulations; Fisheries in the Western Pacific; Pelagic Fisheries; Hawaii-based Shallow-set Longline Fishery". Federal Register. 2009-12-10. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
- ^ "Western Pacific Pelagic Fisheries; Closure of the Hawaii Shallow-Set Pelagic Longline Fishery Due To Reaching the Annual Limit on Sea Turtle Interactions". Federal Register. 2011-11-25. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
- ^ "Western Pacific Pelagic Fisheries; Revised Limits on Sea Turtle Interactions in the Hawaii Shallow-Set Longline Fishery". Federal Register. 2012-10-04. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
- ^ "State symbols/Fla. cracker horse/loggerhead turtle (SB 230)". Florida House of Representatives. 2008. Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
- ^ Shearer & Shearer 1994, p. 323
Bibliography
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Further reading
- ISBN 0-00-219318-3. (Caretta caretta, p. 95 + Figure 2 on p. 99).
- ISBN 0-394-50824-6. (Caretta caretta, pp. 475–476 + Plate 265).
- Bolten, Alan B.; Witherington, Blair E. (2003). Loggerhead Sea Turtles. Washington, District of Columbia: Smithsonian Books. ISBN 1-58834-136-4.
- Boulenger GA (1889). Catalogue of the Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians, and Crocodiles in the British Museum (Natural History). New Edition. London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, Printers). x + 311 pp. + Plates I-III. (Thalassochelys caretta, pp. 184–186).
- ISBN 0-7167-0020-4. (Caretta caretta, pp. 122, 124, 267).
- Gulko D, Eckert KL (2004). Sea Turtles: An Ecological Guide. Honolulu, Hawai'i: Mutual Publishing. ISBN 1-56647-651-8.
- Linnaeus C (1758). Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio Decima, Reformata. Stockholm: L. Salvius. 824 pp. (Testudo caretta, new species, pp. 197–198). (in Latin).
- Lutz, Peter L.; Musick, John A.; Wyneken, Jeanette (1997). The Biology of Sea Turtles, Volume I. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-8422-2.
- Lutz, Peter L.; Musick, John A.; Wyneken, Jeanette (2003). The Biology of Sea Turtles, Volume II. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-1123-3.
- ISBN 978-0-544-12997-9. (Caretta caretta, p. 192 + Plate 14 + Figure 81 on p. 174).
- ISBN 0-307-13666-3. (Caretta caretta, pp. 36–37).
- Stejneger L, Barbour T (1917). A Check List of North American Amphibians and Reptiles. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 125 pp. (Caretta caretta, p. 123).
External links
- A 3D animation of a sea turtle.
- Loggerhead sea turtle media from ARKive
- Photos of Loggerhead sea turtle on Sealife Collection