Native American ethnobotany
This is a list of plants used by the indigenous people of North America. For lists pertaining specifically to the Cherokee, Iroquois, Navajo, and Zuni, see Cherokee ethnobotany, Iroquois ethnobotany, Navajo ethnobotany, and Zuni ethnobotany.
 |
A
- Abronia fragrans (snowball-sand verbena) Used as both food and medicine. See article for complete list of uses.
- Acer glabrum var. douglasii (Douglas maple), used by Plateau tribes as a treatment for diarrhea.[1]
- Acer negundo (box elder), used as food, lumber, and medicine. Please see article for full information.
- Acer saccharinum (silver maple), an infusion of bark removed from the south side of the tree is used by the Mohegan for cough medicine.[6] It is also used by other tribes for various purposes.[7]
- Acer saccharum (sugar maple), used by the Mohegan as a cough remedy, and the sap as a sweetening agent and to make maple syrup.[8] It is also used by other tribes for various purposes.[9]
- Actaea racemosa (black cohosh), used to treat gynecological and other disorders, including sore throats, kidney problems, and depression.[10]
- Actaea rubra (red baneberry), used by the Algonquin for stomach pains, in some seasons for males, other seasons for females.[11]
- nosebleeds.[13]
- Allium tricoccum, used as both food and medicine. Please see the article for full information.
- Alnus rhombifolia, used by some Plateau tribes for female health treatment.[1]
- tumors.[14]
- menstrual cramps and menopause by taking it as a decoction, and consuming it regularly before the menstruation period. They also used it as an aid for child labor since the plant stimulates the uterine mucosa, quickening the process.[15] The Cahuilla people chewed on the leaves, dried or fresh, to fight colds and coughs. The Ohlone used it to remove pain by applying it to wounds and teeth, to treat colds, coughs, and rheumatism by making it into a tea bath, and as a poultice for asthma.[15]
- Artemisia douglasiana, used to treat colds, fevers, and headaches.[16]
- Artemisia ludoviciana, used by several tribes for a variety of medicinal purposes.[17]
- Arundinaria, used for medicinal as well as many other purposes.[18]
- Asarum canadense, used to treat a number of ailments including dysentery, digestive problems, swollen breasts, coughs and colds, typhus, scarlet fever, nerves, sore throats, cramps, heaves, earaches, headaches, convulsions, asthma, tuberculosis, urinary disorders and venereal disease. They also used it as a stimulant, an appetite enhancer and a charm. It was also used as an admixture to strengthen other herbal preparations.[19]
- Asclepias verticillata, used medicinally.[20]
B
- Baccharis sarothroides, used by the Seri people to make a decoction by cooking the twigs. This tea is used to treat colds, sinus headache, and general sore achy ailments. The same tea is also used as a rub for sore muscles.[21] Studies done on plant extracts show that desert broom is rich in leutolin, a flavonoid that has demonstrated anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and cholesterol lowering capabilities. Desert broom also has quercetin, a proven antioxidant, and apigenin a chemical which binds to the same brain receptor sites that Valium does.[22]
- Salish.[23]
- Baptisia australis – the Cherokee would use the roots in teas as a purgative or to treat tooth aches and nausea, while the Osage made an eyewash with the plant.[24]
- Betula occidentalis, used by some Plateau tribes to treat pimples and sores.[16]
- Blephilia ciliata, traditionally used by the Cherokee to make a poultice to treat headaches.[25]
- emetic, respiratory aid, and other treatments.[26]
C
- Calypso (orchid), used by the Nlaka'pamux of British Columbia used it as a treatment for mild epilepsy.[27]
- Cardamine diphylla, used for food and medicine. See article for full information.
- Caulophyllum[28]
- Ceanothus integerrimus, the branches of which were used among the Indigenous peoples of California in treating women after childbirth.[29]
- Ceanothus velutinus, used by certain Plateau tribes to create herbal tea to induce sweating as a treatment for colds, fevers, and influenza. Leaves were also used when rinsing to help prevent dandruff.[16] C. velutinus was known as "red root" by many Native American tribes due to the color of the inner root bark, and was used as a medicine for treating lymphatic disorders, ovarian cysts, fibroid tumors, and tonsillitis. Clinical studies of the alkaloid compounds in C. velutinus has verified its effectiveness in treating high blood pressure and lymphatic blockages.[14]
- Chimaphila umbellata, used by some Plateau tribes in an herbal tea to treat tuberculosis.[16]
- Claytonia virginica (Virginia spring-beauty), used medicinally by the Iroquois, who would give a cold infusion or decoction of the powdered roots to children suffering from convulsions.[30] They would also eat the raw roots, believing that they permanently prevented conception.[31] They would also eat the roots,[32] as would the Algonquin people, who cooked them like potatoes.[33]
- Cleome serrulata, used by tribes in the southwest to make an infusion to treat stomach illnesses and fevers. Poultices can be used on the eyes.[34]
- Commelina dianthifolia, infusion of plant used by Keres as a strengthener for weakened tuberculosis patients.[35]
- Cornus sericea, used by Plateau tribes to treat colds by eating the berries. Also used to slow bleeding.[36][37]
D
- Datura wrightii, the plant, often the root but any part of the plant could be used, was made into a tea which was then consumed as a rite of passage in Chumash ceremonies due to being a deliriant hallucinogen.[38]
- Delphinium nudicaule, the root of which was used as a narcotic by the Mendocino.[39]
- microbes.[40] The plant is used medicinally and ceremonially by the Tlingit people of Southeast Alaska, who refer to it as "Tlingit aspirin". A piece of devil's club hung over a doorway is said to ward off evil. The plant is harvested and used in a variety of ways, including lip balms, ointments, and herbal teas. Some Tlingit disapprove of the commercialization of the plant as they see it as a violation of its sacred status.[41]
E
- Echinacea, Echinacea angustifolia was widely used by the North American Plains Indians for its general medicinal qualities.[42] Echinacea was one of the basic antimicrobial herbs of eclectic medicine from the mid 19th century through the early 20th century, and its use was documented for snakebite, anthrax, and for relief of pain. In the 1930s echinacea became popular in both Europe and America as an herbal medicine. According to Wallace Sampson, MD, its modern-day use as a treatment for the common cold began when a Swiss herbal supplement maker was "erroneously told" that echinacea was used for cold prevention by Native American tribes who lived in the area of South Dakota.[43] Although Native American tribes didn't use echinacea to prevent the common cold, some Plains tribes did use echinacea to treat some of the symptoms that could be caused by the common cold: The Kiowa used it for coughs and sore throats, the Cheyenne for sore throats, the Pawnee for headaches, and many tribes including the Lakotah used it as an analgesic.[44] Native Americans learned of E. angustifolia by observing elk seeking out the plants and consuming them when sick or wounded, and identified those plants as elk root.[14] The following table examines why various tribes use echinacea.[45]
| Tribe | Uses |
|---|---|
| Cheyenne | Sore mouth/gums |
| Choctaws | Coughs, dyspepsia |
| Comanche | Toothache, sore throat |
Crow
|
Colds, toothache, colic |
| Dakota (Oglala) | Cool inflammation |
Delaware (Lenape)
|
Gonorrhea |
| Kiowa | Coughs, sore throat |
| Meskwaki | Cramps |
| Omaha | Septic diseases |
| Omaha-Ponca | Eye wash |
| Sioux (Dakota) | Bowels, tonsillitis |
The entire echinacea plant is used medicinally, both dried and fresh. Common preparations include making a decoction or infusion of the roots and leaves, making a poultice of parts of the plant, juicing the root or simply using the leaves as they were.[46]
Echinacea contains essential oils and polysaccharides that boost the immune system, leading to a faster recovery from various illnesses. Due to this property, echinacea has been commercialized and has had clinical trials support that it reduces the duration of a cold by 1–4 days and reduces the chance of developing a cold by 58%.[47]
- Encelia farinosa (brittlebush), used by the Seri to treat toothache. For toothache the bark is removed, the branch heated in ashes, and then placed in the mouth to "harden" a loose tooth.[21] The Cahuilla of California also used this as a toothache reliever,[48] and to treat chest pain as well by heating the plant gum and applying it to the chest.[48][49]
- Ephedra californica, used by the indigenous peoples of California.[50]
- Epigaea repens, see article for full information.
- venereal disease.[36]
- Eriodictyon crassifolium, used by the Chumash people to keep airways open for proper breathing.[52]
- Eriodictyon trichocalyx (Yerba Santa), used by the Cahuilla to pure blood and to treat coughs, colds, sore throats, asthma, tuberculosis, and catarrh. It was also used as a liniment, a poultice, and a tea bath to treating rheumatism, fatigued limbs, sores, and fevers.[48][53] The Chumash also used this as a liniment for the feet and chest.[53]
- hemorrhoids.[53]
- for intestinal worms.
- Eurybia macrophylla (bigleaf aster), used as both food and medicine. Please see article for more information.
G
- Ojibwa people to make a beverage.[61]
- Gaultheria procumbens, used by various tribes.[62]
- Gentiana villosa, Catawba Indians used the boiled roots as medicine to relieve back pain.[63]
- Mesquakie tribe to brew a root tea for toothache and for painful nerves. They also mashed the roots for treating hemorrhoids.[64]
- Goldenseal, referred to by Prof. Benjamin Smith Barton in his first edition of Collections for an Essay Toward a Materia Medica of the United States (1798), as being used by the Cherokee as a cancer treatment.
- Tewa both used the plant as a carminative, as prayer stick decorations, and for roasting sweet corn.[66]
H
- Puritan settlers in New England adopted this remedy from the natives, and its use became widely established in the United States.[68] It is a flowering plant with multiple species native to North America. It has been widely used by Native Americans for its medicinal benefits, leading white settlers to incorporate it into their own medical practices. An extract of witch hazel stems is used to treat sore muscles, skin and eye inflammation and to stop bleeding.[69][70][71] Witch hazel is utilized by many tribes, including the Menominee for sore legs of tribesmen who participate in sporting games, the Osage for skin ulcers and sores, the Potawatomi in sweat lodges for sore muscles and the Iroquois in tea for coughs and colds.[72][73]
| Tribe | Uses |
|---|---|
| Cherokee | Pain relief, colds, skin issues and fever |
Chippewa
|
Skin issues, emetic , sore eyes
|
| Iroquois Confederation | Antidiarrheal , blood purifier, arthritis, appetite stimulant
|
| Menominee | Predictor of future healing |
| Potawatomi | Sore muscles |
Mohegan
|
Dowsing |
Witch hazel works as an astringent, a substance that causes the constriction of body tissues. The tannins and flavonoids found in witch hazel have astringent and antioxidant properties, respectively, which are thought to contract and protect blood vessels, thereby reducing inflammation. However, modern witch hazel extracts are often distilled and do not contain tannins due to health concerns.[74]
- Heracleum maximum, used by various Native American peoples. Perhaps the most common use was to make poultices to be applied to bruises or sores.an infusion of the flowers can be rubbed on the body to repel flies and mosquitoes.[75]
- Stl'atl'imx. They would steep the berries in boiling water to use as a treatment for diarrhea, smallpox, chickenpox and as a blood tonic.[76]
- Shoshone as medicine for problems such as stomachaches and colds.[77]
- Hydrangea arborescens, used in the treatment of kidney and bladder stones.[78][79]
- Hydrangea cinerea, used by the Cherokee.[78][79]
I
- Ilex verticillata, used by Native Americans for medicinal purposes, the origin of the name "fever bush".[80]
- Iris missouriensis, the roots of which were used by some Plateau tribes to treat toothache.[81]
J
- Jeffersonia diphylla – the Cherokee reportedly used an infusion of this plant for treating dropsy and urinary tract problems, it was also used as a poultice for sores and inflammation.[82] The Iroquois used a decoction of the plant to treat liver problems and diarrhea.[82]
- Juniperus communis – Western American tribes combined the berries of Juniperus communis with Berberis root bark in a herbal tea. Native Americans also used juniper berries as a female contraceptive.[83]
- Juniperus scopulorum, the leaves and inner bark of which were boiled by some Plateau tribes to create an infusion to treat coughs and fevers. The berries were also sometimes boiled into a drink used as a laxative and to treat colds.[81]
K
- Krascheninnikovia lanata, used for a wide variety of ailments.[84]
L
- sexually transmitted diseases, tuberculosis, chicken pox, dysmenorrhea, and snakebite.[85] The shrub is still widely used as a medicine in Mexico. It contains nordihydroguaiaretic acid.[86]
- purgative. The species used most commonly in modern herbalism is Lobelia inflata (Indian tobacco).[87]
- Lophophora williamsii, has at least 5,500 years of entheogenic and medicinal use by indigenous North Americans.[88]
M
- dyspepsia.[16]
- Mahonia nervosa, an infusion of the root of which was used some Plateau tribes to treat rheumatism.[16]
- Karok of Northwest California used the roots for a blood and cough tonic, as well as by other tribes for various purposes.[89]
- Malosma, the root bark of which was used by the Chumash to make an herbal tea for treating dysentery.[90]
O
P
- Pectis papposa, used as food and medicine.
- Persicaria amphibia, used medicinally.[93]
- Diegueno also ate nuts and the seeds also.[94]
- Pinus strobus, the resin of which was used by the Chippewa to treat infections and gangrene.[95][96]
- emetic, cathartic, and anthelmintic agent. They also boiled the poisonous root, and used the water to treat stomach aches.[98]
- Populus tremuloides, the bark of which contains a substance that can be extracted and used as a quinine substitute.[99]
- Prunus virginiana, the root bark of which was once made into an asperous-textured concoction used to ward off or treat colds, fever and stomach maladies by Native Americans.[101]
- Pseudognaphalium obtusifolium, ssp obtusifolium, see article for full information.
R
- Ribes aureum, used as medicine by several tribes.[102][103]
- Ribes divaricatum, used by various tribes in the Pacific Northwest.[104]
- Cree people use a decoction of the stem, either by itself or mixed with wild red raspberry, to prevent clotting after birth.[106] The Algonquin people use the berries as food.[107]
- Ribes laxiflorum, used an infusion to make an eyewash (roots and or branches, by the Bella Coolah). Decoctions of: bark to remedy tuberculosis (with the roots, by the Skokomish); or for the common cold (Skagit): leaves and twigs, as a general tonic (Lummi).[108]
- Ribes oxyacanthoides, used medicinally.[109]
S
- Sage is a small evergreen shrub used to treat inflammation, bacterial or viral infection and chronic illness. Commonly treated conditions include abdominal cramping/pain, bloating, bleeding, bruising, skin disease, cough, excessive sweating, menstrual cramps and flu as well as depression, obesity heart disease and cancer. Sage can be administered in tea, food, as a poultice or in smoke. Sage contains multiple essential oils as well as tannins and flavonoids, which have "carminative, antispasmodic, antiseptic, and astringent properties".[110] In addition to being used in modern food preparation, sage is still utilized for herbal and pharmaceutical medicines with strong evidence supporting its impacts. The following table examines why various tribes use sage.[72][110]
| Tribe | Uses |
|---|---|
Cahuilla
|
Colds, shampoo, deodorant, cleanse hunting equipment of bad luck |
Costanoan
|
Eye cleanser, fevers |
| Dakota (Oglala) | Disinfectant, stomach ache |
Diegueno
|
Colds, poison oak treatment, general strengthening |
| Eskimo | Inflammation |
| Mahuna | Heal damage from birth |
Tübatulabal
|
Consumed seeds as food |
- Candida brassicae.[112]
- Papago broke the twigs in half to make baskets, and were curved to make difficult weaves in the baskets. The Pima piled dried bushes for a brush fence, and used the branches for cradle frames too. The Papago deer hunters wore the branches as a disguise as a deer, and the buds and blossoms were dried for perfume pouches. The branches were used to dislodge saguaro fruits from the body, and the rods were used to remove flesh from animal skins. The Pima used the wood for bows.[94]
- physic.[114]Note that this plant is not native to the Americas and was introduced by Europeans.
T
- Tobacco, previously used for a variety of medicinal purposes[115]
- Trichostema lanatum, used for a variety of medicinal purposes.[116]
- Trichostema lanceolatum, used by natives of northern California as a cold and fever remedy, a pain reliever, and a flea repellent.[117]
- Triodanis perfoliata, see article for full information.
U
- Poultices of Mendocino County treated headaches by placing a single leaf in the nostril or bathing the head with a laurel leaf infusion.[119]
V
- Viburnum prunifolium, a decoction of which was to treat gynecological conditions, including menstrual cramps, aiding recovery after childbirth, and in treating the effects of menopause.[120]
- Virginia iris – Cherokee and other tribes in the southeastern United States are known to have used Virginia iris for its medicinal properties. The root was pounded into a paste that was used as a salve for skin. An infusion made from the root was used to treat ailments of the liver, and a decoction of root was used to treat "yellowish urine". Virginia iris may have been one of the iris species used by the Seminole to treat "shock following alligator-bite".[121]
W
- The inner bark of willow trees has been used by Native American groups for health issues including headache, bleeding cuts, skin sores, fever, cough and hoarseness, menstrual cramping, stomach pain and diarrhea. The inner bark is most often made into tea and drank, though it is also made into a poultice to cover the skin over broken bones or used to wash skin and hair to promote skin repair and hair growth.[72]
| Tribe | Uses |
|---|---|
| Keres | Analgesic |
| Hualapai | Antirheumatic |
| Alabama | Antidiarrheal |
| Abnaki | Cough Medicine |
| Navajo | Ceremonial Medicine |
| Thompson | Orthopedic Aid (i.e. broken bones), colds, coughs, laxative |
| Seminole | Analgesic |
Willow bark contains salicin, a compound similar to aspirin that has anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic properties.[122] The following table examines why various tribes use willow.[72]
One reason for the vast differences in the use of the willow is that there are many ways to prepare it and these different preparations allow for it to be utilized in different ways. For example, the Thompson people would make a concoction of wood, willow, soapberry branches and "anything weeds" to treat broken bones. If they wanted to treat a cold, however, the Thompson people would make a decoction of red willow branches and wild rose roots.[72]
Y
References
- ^ ISBN 0-295-97119-3.
- ^ Hellson, John C. 1974 Ethnobotany of the Blackfoot Indians. Ottawa. National Museums of Canada. Mercury Series (p. 65)
- ^ Turner, Nancy J., R. Bouchard and Dorothy I.D. Kennedy 1980 Ethnobotany of the Okanagan-Colville Indians of British Columbia and Washington. Victoria. British Columbia Provincial Museum (p. 59)
- ^ Steedman, E.V. 1928 The Ethnobotany of the Thompson Indians of British Columbia. SI-BAE Annual Report #45:441-522 (p. 475)
- ^ "results of search". herb.umd.umich.edu. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ^ Tantaquidgeon, Gladys 1928 Mohegan Medicinal Practices, Weather-Lore and Superstitions. SI-BAE Annual Report #43: 264-270 (p. 269)
- ^ http://herb.umd.umich.edu/herb/search.pl?searchstring=Acer saccharinum
- ^ Tantaquidgeon, Gladys 1972 Folk Medicine of the Delaware and Related Algonkian Indians. Harrisburg. Pennsylvania Historical Commission Anthropological Papers #3 (p. 69, 128)
- ^ http://herb.umd.umich.edu/herb/search.pl?searchstring=Acer saccharum
- . Retrieved 2009-08-24.
- ^ http://herb.umd.umich.edu/herb/search.pl?searchstring=Actaea rubra
- ISBN 0-8156-0464-5.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-88192-987-4.
- ^ ISBN 0-87842-359-1
- ^ a b "Artemisia californica" (PDF). fs.fed.us. February 2016.
- ^ ISBN 0-295-97119-3.
- ISBN 978-1-4053-3296-5.
- S2CID 85780027
- ^ Whittemore, Alan T.; Mesler, Michael R.; Lu, Karen L. (2006), "Asarum canadense", Flora of North America, vol. 3, New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press
- ^ "Kansas Wildflowers and Grasses - Whorled milkweed". kswildflower.org. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ^ a b Felger, R. S. and M. B. Moser, 1985, People of the Desert and Sea. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ.
- ^ Karch, S. B. 1999. The Consumer's Guide to Herbal Medicine. Advanced Research Press, New York, NY.
- ^ "Balsamorhiza sagittata | Forest Service Fire Ecology". fs.fed.us. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ^ Broyles, Patrick J. (2004), Blue Wild Indigo (PDF), retrieved 2007-06-19
- ^ "Blephilia ciliata (L.) Benth." Native American Ethnobotany.
- ^ Native American Ethnobotany (University of Michigan - Dearborn: Sanguinaria canadensis'. accessed 2011-01-12.
- ISBN 0-88192-453-9
- ^ "Native American Ethnobotany Database by D. Moerman". herb.umd.umich.edu. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ^ Moerman, D. Native American Ethnobotany. Timber Press, Oregon: 1988.
- ^ Herrick, James William 1977 Iroquois Medical Botany. State University of New York, Albany, PhD Thesis (p. 317)
- ^ Herrick, p.318
- ^ Waugh, F. W. 1916 Iroquois Foods and Food Preparation. Ottawa. Canada Department of Mines (p. 120)
- ^ Black, Meredith Jean 1980 Algonquin Ethnobotany: An Interpretation of Aboriginal Adaptation in South Western Quebec. Ottawa. National Museums of Canada. Mercury Series Number 65 (p. 84)
- ^ "Beeweed". www2.nau.edu. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ^ Commelina dianthifolia. Native American Ethnobotany (University of Michigan - Dearborn). UM-Dearborn College of Arts, Sciences, and Letters.. Retrieved 2011-01-25.
- ^ ISBN 0-295-97119-3.
- ISBN 0-88192-453-9
- ^ Applegate, Richard B. (1975-07-01). "The Datura Cult Among the Chumash". The Journal of California Anthropology. 2 (1).
- ^ University of Michigan (Dearborn): Native American Ethnobotany — 'Delphinium nudicaule'. accessed 2013-10-01.
- PMID 17316661.
- National Public RadioMorning Edition, 8/11/2004
- ISBN 978-0-8032-9862-0.
- ^ Study: Echinacea Cuts Colds by Half WebMD Health News, June 26, 2007
- ISBN 978-0-88192-453-4.
- ^ "Echinacea: From Native American Pancea to Modern Phytopharmaceutical – Dr. Christopher Hobbs". www.christopherhobbs.com. 15 August 2014. Retrieved 2016-03-15.
- ^ Dweck, Anthony. "ETHNOBOTANICAL USE OF PLANTS PART 4 THE AMERICAN CONTINENT" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-03-16.
- ^ "Echinacea". University of Maryland Medical Center. Retrieved 2016-03-15.
- ^ a b c "Cahuilla Plants". enduringknowledgepublications.com.
- ^ "Temalpakh Ethnobotanical Garden". malkimuseum.org. Archived from the original on 2008-05-15.
- ^ University of Michigan - Dearborn: Native American Ethnobotany — Ephedra californica. accessed 2013-10-01.
- ^ "Dr. Moermann's Ethnobotanical database: E. bulbosa". herb.umd.umich.edu. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- PMID 15937554.
- ^ a b c "Using Santa Barbara's Yerba Santa to Treat Cold, Flu, and Cough". sbhealthandhealing.com. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
- ^ "Eriodictyon californicum". fs.fed.us.
- ^ Eryngium aquaticum University of Michigan Ethnobotany.
- ISBN 978-0-88192-453-4.
- ^ Black, Meredith Jean 1980 Algonquin Ethnobotany: An Interpretation of Aboriginal Adaptation in South Western Quebec. Ottawa. National Museums of Canada. Mercury Series Number 65 (p. 216)
- ^ Black, p.102
- ^ Rousseau, Jacques 1946 Notes Sur L'ethnobotanique D'anticosti. Archives de Folklore 1:60-71 (p. 68)
- ^ Speck, Frank G. 1917 Medicine Practices of the Northeastern Algonquians. Proceedings of the 19th International Congress of Americanists Pp. 303-321 (p. 317)
- ^ Densmore, Frances 1928 Uses of Plants by the Chippewa Indians. SI-BAE Annual Report #44:273-379 (p. 317)
- ISBN 978-1-58333-100-2. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ^ "Cherokee Messenger - Native American Herbal Remedies". powersource.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-23. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ^ Plants for a Future: Geranium maculatum
- ^ "Gutierrezia microcephala". Native American Ethnobotany. University of Michigan. Retrieved 2012-12-29.
- ^ Hocking, George M. (1956). "Some Plant Materials Used Medicinally and Otherwise by the Navaho Indians in the Chaco Canyon, New Mexico" (PDF). El Palacio. 63: 151. Retrieved 2012-12-29.
- ^ Anthony C. Dweck, Ethnobotanical Use of Plants, Part 4: The American Continent.
- ^ Michael C. Bingham, Which Witch Is Witch Hazel (and Which Dickinson Makes It)? Archived 2009-08-02 at the Wayback Machine, Connecticut Business Journal, 20 October 1997.
- ^ Medow, Norman (2006-04-15). "Native American medicine included variety of treatments for ocular disorders". Ophthalmology Times. 31 (8). Retrieved 2016-03-15.
- ^ "12.4 North American Indian Medicine". The University of Illinois at Chicago. Retrieved 2016-03-14.
- ^ "Cherokee Messenger - Native American Herbal Remedies". www.powersource.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-23. Retrieved 2016-03-15.
- ^ a b c d e "Native American Ethnobotany". University of Michigan - Dearborn. Retrieved 2016-03-16.
- ^ Andriote, John-Manuel (2012-11-06). "The Mysterious Past and Present of Witch Hazel". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2016-03-15.
- ^ "Witch Hazel — The Dermatology Review". www.thedermreview.com. 2013-11-25. Retrieved 2016-03-15.
- ^ "University of Michigan Ethnobotany". herb.umd.umich.edu. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ISBN 978-1-55105-530-5
- ^ Holodiscus dumosus. University of Michigan Ethnobotany.
- ^ a b "Mrs. M. Grieve. A Modern Herbal. Hydrangea arborescens". botanical.com. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ^ a b "Plants for a Future: Hydrangea arborescens ". pfaf.org. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ^ U.M. Ethnobotany. accessed 2011-01-11.
- ^ ISBN 0-295-97119-3.
- ^ a b "UM-Dearborn College of Arts, Sciences, and Letters | Native American Ethnobotany Database by D. Moerman". herb.umd.umich.edu. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ISBN 0-87842-359-1.
- ^ U.Mich.ethnobotany. accessed 2011-10-01.
- ^ "Larrea tridentata (Sesse' and Moc. ex DC.) Coville - Creosote Bush" (PDF). US Forest Service. February 2016.
- PMID 15814253.
- ^ "Lobelia". EBSCO Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) Review Board. January 2006. Retrieved 2007-09-12.
- PMID 15990261.
- ^ Moerman, Dan. "Mahonia repens". Native American Ethnobotany. University of Michigan-Dearborn. Retrieved 2013-01-01.
- S2CID 25807034.
- ^ "Native American Ethnobotany Database (University of Michigan - Dearborn): Moonseed". herb.umd.umich.edu. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ^ Univ. Mich.-Dearborn College of Arts, Sciences, and Letters: Native American Ethnobotany: Osmunda species (scroll for O. claytoniana). accessed 2011-01-12.
- ^ "Ethnobotany". herb.umd.umich.edu. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ^ a b "Herb Search". herb.umd.umich.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-07-15.
- ^ Native American Ethnobotany (University of Michigan - Dearborn). accessed 1.13.2013
- ^ Fernald, M., A. Kinsey, and R. Rollins. 1943. Edible Wild Plants. Harper & Row, NY.
- ^ "Ethnobotany". herb.umd.umich.edu. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ^ "Unusual Uses of Plants and Flowers". voices.yahoo.com. Archived from the original on 2014-07-28. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ^ Ewing, Susan. The Great Alaska Nature Factbook. Portland: Alaska Northwest Books, 1996.
- ISBN 0-9665463-1-8
- ^ pg. 81, Trees of Michigan and the Upper Great Lakes 6th edition, Norman F. Smith, Thunder Bay Press, 2002
- ^ USDA Plants Profile: Acer glabrum
- ^ "Ethnobotany". herb.umd.umich.edu. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ^ Dan Moerman. "Search for Ribes divaricatum". Native American Ethnobotany Database. Dearborn, Michigan: University of Michigan. Retrieved 2010-08-02.
- ^ Densmore, Frances 1928 Uses of Plants by the Chippewa Indians. SI-BAE Annual Report #44:273-379 (p. 356)
- ^ Leighton, Anna L. 1985 Wild Plant Use by the Woods Cree (Nihithawak) of East-Central Saskatchewan. Ottawa. National Museums of Canada. Mercury Series (p. 54)
- ^ Black, Meredith Jean 1980 Algonquin Ethnobotany: An Interpretation of Aboriginal Adaptation in South Western Quebec. Ottawa. National Museums of Canada. Mercury Series Number 65 (p. 88)
- ^ Dan Moerman. "Search for Ribes laxiflorum". Native American Ethnobotany Database. Dearborn, Michigan: University of Michigan. Retrieved 2010-07-20.
- ^ Ribes oxyacanthoides. University of Michigan Ethnobotany.
- ^ PMID 24860730.
- ^ USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center; Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden. "Salvia apiana Jepson" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture Plant Guide. USDA. Retrieved 2012-01-03.
- hdl:10150/185511.
- ^ "Palliative Care Among Chumash People". Wild Food Plants. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-10-06. Retrieved 2007-07-14.
- ^ Smith, Huron H. 1932 Ethnobotany of the Ojibwe Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of Milwaukee 4:327-525 (p. 361)
- PMID 15173337.
- ^ "Ethnobotany". herb.umd.umich.edu. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ^ "Ethnobotany". herb.umd.umich.edu. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-930588-86-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-150-78114-8.
- ISBN 978-0-87596-181-1.
- ^ "Plants.USDA.gov". USDA.
- S2CID 25506009.
- ^ "Native American Ethnobotany". University of Michigan–Dearborn. Retrieved 2012-09-17.
External links
- http://herb.umd.umich.edu Native American Ethnobotany Database.
- https://mc.miamioh.edu/mahkihkiwa/ Myaamia Ethnobotanical Database