Homosexuality and religion
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major religions and their denominations differ in their attitudes toward these sexual orientations. Adherence to anti-gay religious beliefs and communities is correlated with the prevalence of emotional distress and suicidality in sexual minority individuals, and is a primary motivation for seeking conversion therapy.[1]
Among the religious denominations which generally reject these orientations, there are many different types of opposition, ranging from quietly discouraging homosexual activity, explicitly forbidding same-sex sexual practices among their adherents and actively opposing social acceptance of homosexuality, supporting criminal sanctions up to capital punishment, and even to condoning extrajudicial killings. Religious fundamentalism often correlates with anti-homosexual bias.[2] Psychological research has connected religiosity with homophobic attitudes[3] and physical antigay hostility,[4] and has traced religious opposition to gay adoption to collectivistic values (loyalty, authority, purity) and low flexibility in existential issues, rather than to high prosocial inclinations for the weak.[5] Attitudes toward homosexuality have been found to be determined not only by personal religious beliefs, but by the interaction of those beliefs with the predominant national religious context—even for people who are less religious or who do not share their local dominant religious context.[6] Many argue that it is homosexual actions which are sinful, rather than same-sex attraction itself. To this end, some discourage labeling individuals according to sexual orientation.[7] Several organizations assert that conversion therapy can help diminish same-sex attraction. Some adherents of developed world enacts laws supporting LGBT rights.
Historically, some cultures and religions accommodated, institutionalized, or revered same-sex love and sexuality;[8][9] such mythologies and traditions can be found around the world.[10] While Hinduism does not condemn homosexuality exclusively, it does often have a negative view on sexual activity generally (especially for the upper class of monks and priests),[11] and one can find numerous portrayals of homosexuality in Hindu literature and artworks.[12] Sikh wedding ceremonies are non-gender specific, and so same-sex marriage is possible within Sikhism.[13] Regardless of their position on homosexuality, many people of faith look to both sacred texts and tradition for guidance on this issue. However, the authority of various traditions or scriptural passages and the correctness of translations and interpretations are continually disputed.
Specific religious groupsAncient Mesopotamian religionIndividuals who went against the traditional gender binary were heavily involved in the cult of Inanna, an ancient Mesopotamian goddess.[14][15] During Sumerian times, a set of priests known as gala worked in Inanna's temples, where they performed elegies and lamentations.[14] Men who became gala sometimes adopted female names and their songs were composed in the Sumerian eme-sal dialect, which, in literary texts, is normally reserved for the speech of female characters. Some Sumerian proverbs seem to suggest that gala had a reputation for engaging in anal sex with men.[16] During the Akkadian Period, kurgarrū and assinnu were servants of Ishtar who dressed in female clothing and performed war dances in Ishtar's temples.[16] Several Akkadian proverbs seem to suggest that they may have also had homosexual proclivities.[16] Gwendolyn Leick, an anthropologist known for her writings on Mesopotamia, has compared these individuals to the contemporary Indian hijra.[14] In one Akkadian hymn, Ishtar is described as transforming men into women.[16] Some modern pagans include Inanna in their worship.[17] Abrahamic religionsPresbyterian, Anglican, Lutheran, and Methodist churches welcome members regardless of same-sex sexual practices, with some provinces allowing for the ordination and inclusion of gay and lesbian clerics, and affirmation of same-sex unions.[20][21] Reform Judaism incorporates lesbian and gay rabbis and same-sex marriage liturgies, while Reconstructionist Judaism and Conservative Judaism in the US allows for lesbian and gay rabbis and same-sex unions.[22]
JudaismThe death penalty, although in practice rabbinic Judaism no longer believes it has the authority to implement death penalties.)
civil law and public society, but also to uphold a ban on anal sex as a religious requirement.
ChristianityThe penetrative vaginal intercourse between men and women within the boundaries of marriage over all other forms of human sexual activity,[27][28] including autoeroticism, masturbation, oral sex, non-penetrative and non-heterosexual sexual intercourse (all of which have been labeled as "sodomy" at various times),[29] believing and teaching that such behaviors are forbidden because they're considered sinful,[27][28] and further compared to or derived from the behavior of the alleged residents of Sodom and Gomorrah.[30][27]
Restorationist churches, like Iglesia ni Cristo, the Jehovah's Witnesses and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, also take the position that homosexual sexual activity is sinful.[47][48]
 Lutheran churches allow for the blessing of gay unions. Within the Anglican communion there are openly gay clergy; for example, Gene Robinson and Mary Glasspool are openly homosexual bishops in the US Episcopal Church and Eva Brunne in Lutheran Church of Sweden. The Episcopal Church's recent actions vis-a-vis homosexuality have brought about increased ethical debate and tension within the Church of England and worldwide Anglican churches. In the United States and many other nations, the religious people are becoming more affirming of same-sex relationships. Even those in denominations with official stances are liberalizing, though not as quickly as those in more affirming religious groups.[59]
Passages from the Bishop David Jenkins, Don Cupitt, and Bishop Jack Spong challenged traditional theological positions and understandings of the Bible; following these developments some have suggested that passages have been mistranslated, are taken out of context, or that they do not refer to what is generally understood as "homosexuality."[66][67]
Conservative denominations). While the Catholic view is founded on a Catholic ChurchThe the Church's sexual ethics, homosexual activity falls short in the complementarity (male and female organs complement each other) and fecundity (openness to new life) of the sexual act. Few studies of parishioners' individual views are sometimes at variance with the church's non-acceptance of homosexuality.[96]
Latter-day SaintsAll homosexual or same-sex sexual activity is forbidden by disciplinary council.[97] Members of the church who experience homosexual attractions, including those who self-identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual remain in good standing in the church if they abstain from same-sex marriage and all sexual relations outside an opposite-sex marriage,[98][99][100] but all, including those participating in same-sex activity and relationships, are allowed to attend weekly church worship services.[101] However, in order to receive church ordinances such as baptism, and to enter church temples, adherents are required to abstain from same-sex relations.[102][103] Additionally, in the church's plan of salvation noncelibate gay and lesbian individuals will not be allowed in the top tier of heaven to receive exaltation unless they repent, and a heterosexual marriage is a requirement for exaltation.[104][105]
The LDS Church previously taught that homosexuality was a curable condition: 20–21 IslamILGA seven countries still retain capital punishment for homosexual behavior: Saudi Arabia, Yemen (for adultery), Iran, Brunei, Afghanistan, Mauritania, and northern Nigeria.[119] Classical Islamic jurists did not deal with homosexuality as a sexual orientation, since the latter concept is modern and has no equivalent in traditional law, which dealt with it under the technical terms of liwata and zinā.[120] Most legal schools treat homosexual intercourse with penetration similarly to unlawful heterosexual intercourse under the rubric of zinā, but there are differences of opinion with respect to methods of punishment, as evident from an eleventh-century discussion among the scholars of Baghdad.[121]: 152 Some gay individuals undergo sex reassignment surgery to transition into the opposite gender to legally marry.[122] The discourse on homosexuality in Islam is primarily concerned with activities between men. There are, however, a few hadiths that mention homosexual behavior among women. Some jurists viewed sexual intercourse as possible only for an individual who possesses a phallus,[125] hence those definitions of sexual intercourse that rely on the entry of as little as the corona of the phallus into a partner's orifice.[125] Since women do not possess a phallus and, in this interpretation, cannot have intercourse with one another, they are therefore physically incapable of committing zinā.[125] Bahá'í FaithBahá'í law limits permissible sexual relations to those between a man and a woman in marriage. Believers are expected to abstain from sex outside matrimony.[126] Bahá'ís do not, however, attempt to impose their moral standards on those who have not accepted the Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh. The Bahá'í Faith takes no position on the sexual practices of those who are not adherents.[127] While requiring uprightness in all matters of morality, whether sexual or otherwise, the Bahá’í teachings also take account of human frailty and call for tolerance and understanding in regard to human failings. In this context, to regard homosexuals with prejudice would be contrary to the spirit of the Bahá’í teachings.[128] Bahá'í Faith does not acknowledge marriage outside of one man and one woman; therefore, anyone not practicing heterosexual relationships cannot marry and must always remain celibate.[129] Indian religionsAmong the bisexual, transgender and intersex identities.
HinduismManu Smriti[134] and Sushruta Samhita , assert that some people are born with either mixed male and female natures, or sexually neuter, as a matter of natural biology (while at the same time there are examples of speaking negatively in regards to male homosexuality as shown by the Manu Smrititi and Arthashastra). In addition, each Hindu denomination had developed distinct rules regarding sexuality, as Hinduism is not unified and is decentralized in essence.
Hindu groups are historically not unified regarding the issue of homosexuality, each one having a distinct doctrinal view.[135][136][137] The Indian Auparishtaka (oral sex).[142]
Similarly, some medieval Hindu temples and artifacts openly depict both male homosexuality and lesbianism within their carvings, such as the temple walls at Khajuraho. Some infer from these images that at least part of the Hindu society and religion were previously more open to variations in human sexuality than they are at present.  Ayoni sex, which includes oral and anal sex, never came to be viewed as much of a sin like in Christianity nor a serious crime and could be practiced in some cases. Close friendship between people of same genders has also been seen as permissible in Hindu texts.[143] Several Hindu priests have performed same-sex marriages, arguing that love is the result of attachments from previous births and that marriage, as a union of spirit, is transcendental to gender.[144][145] BuddhismThe most common formulation of Buddhist ethics are the Five Precepts and the Eightfold Path, one should neither be attached to nor crave sensual pleasure. The third of the Five Precepts is "To refrain from committing sexual misconduct."[146] However, "sexual misconduct" is a broad term, and is subjected to interpretation relative to the social norms of the followers.
The determination of whether or not same-gender relations are appropriate for a layperson is not considered a religious matter by many Buddhists.[147]
According to the Pāli Canon and Āgama (the Early Buddhist scriptures), there is not any saying that same or opposite gender relations have anything to do with sexual misconduct,[148][149] and some Theravada monks express that same-gender relations do not violate the rule to avoid sexual misconduct, which means not having sex with someone under age (thus protected by their parents or guardians), someone betrothed or married or who has taken vows of religious celibacy.[150]
Some later traditions gradually began to add new restrictions on sexual misconduct, like non-vagina sex, though some academics argue it usually involves situations seen as coerced sex.[151][152][153] This non-vagina sex as sexual misconduct view is not based on Buddha's teachings, but from later Abhidharma texts.[154][155] Buddhism is often characterized as distrustful of sensual enjoyment and sexuality in general. References to Ananda —Buddha's cousin and disciple—was a pandaka in one of his many previous lives.
Some later classic Buddhist masters and texts disallow contact between monks/Bodhisattva and pandakas/women and classify non-vagina sex as sexual misconduct, including for lay followers.[162][163][151][164][165][166] The third of the sangha has stated that they are welcoming of all sexual orientations.[174]
In Thailand, some accounts propose that "homosexuality arises as a karmic consequence of violating Buddhist proscriptions against heterosexual misconduct. These karmic accounts describe homosexuality as a congenital condition which cannot be altered, at least in a homosexual person's current lifetime, and have been linked with calls for compassion and understanding from the non-homosexual populace."[156] However, Buddhist leaders in Thailand have also condemned homosexuality,[156] ousted monks accused of homosexual acts, and banned kathoey from ordination. In 2009, Senior monk Phra Maha Wudhijaya Vajiramedh introduced a "good manners" curriculum for novices in the monkhood, stating to the BBC that he was concerned by "the flamboyant behaviour of gay and transgender monks, who can often be seen wearing revealingly tight robes, carrying pink purses and having effeminately-shaped eyebrows."[175] However, in Thailand, several leaders in the Theravada tradition including Phra Payom Kalayano have expressed support for LGBT rights.[176][177][178] A later popular Japanese legend attributed the introduction of monastic homosexuality to Japan to Shingon founder Kukai, although scholars now dismiss the veracity of this assertion, pointing out his strict adherence to the Vinaya.[179][180][181] Nonetheless, the legend served to "affirm same sex relation between men and boys in seventeenth century Japan."[181][182] However, Japanese Buddhist scholar and author of "Wild Azaleas" Kitamura Kigin argued that there was a tendency in monasteries to avoid heterosexuality and to encourage homosexuality.[183]
Although Mahayana Buddhism has some texts against homosexuality (from later Abhidharma texts and Buddhist apocrypha), the majority of its teachings assert that all beings who correctly practice the dharma may reach enlightenment, since all possess an innate Buddha nature. Enlightenment being achievable even in a single life.[184][185] Some Mahayana Buddhist leaders were active in the movement for same-sex marriage rights in Taiwan which legalized same-sex marriages in 2019.[186][187][188][189]
Well known Zen Buddhist, Thich Nhat Hanh, notes the spirit of Buddhism is inclusiveness and states "when you look at the ocean, you see different kinds of waves, many sizes and shapes, but all the waves have water as their foundation and substance. If you are born gay or lesbian, your ground of being is the same as mine. We are different, but we share the same ground of being."[190] The capacity of Buddhism to reform itself and its great variety of distinct beliefs and schools, provide many liberal streams of Buddhism, which are accepting of all sexual orientations. Reformists of Buddhism are mainly predominant in cosmopolitan cities. In global traditions, there is a widescale support for LGBT rights including the European Buddhist Union,[191] the Buddhist Churches of America,[192][193][194] many Shin Buddhist groups,[195] and Zen leaders such as Thich Nhat Hanh.[196] The Federation of Australian Buddhist Councils (FABC), representing Buddhist laypeople, and the Australian Sangha Association vocally supported same-sex marriage in Australia.[197] Soka Gakkai International-USA (SGI-USA) is the most diverse Buddhist community in the United States with more than 500 chapters and some 100 centers throughout the country supports LGBT rights.[198] In a PEW research poll, 88% of American Buddhists stated that homosexuality should be accepted.[199] This was a higher level of support than any other religious group studied.[199] SikhismSikhism has no specific teachings about homosexuality and the Sikh holy scripture, the Guru Granth Sahib, does not explicitly mention heterosexuality, homosexuality or bisexuality. The universal goal of a Sikh is to have no hate or animosity to any person, regardless of factors like race, caste, color, creed or gender.[130] Akal Takhat, the highest religious authority of the Sikhs, issued an edict (hukamnaama) in 2005 against any homosexual marriage in front of Sikh Scriptures (11th Guru of the Sikhs -- Shri Guru Granth Sahib). This was again reiterated when one couple performed an Anand Karaj (Sikh religious marriage) of two homosexual men in 2020 in California. The couple was thrown out of the Sikh religion for this violation.[200] Gurbani based view:
In Sikh Scripture In Guru Granth Sahib, marriage is seen as a union of souls. In Sikhism, the soul is seen as genderless, and the outward appearance of human beings (man, woman) is a temporary state. Same-sex marriage advocates refer to this fact.[202] Zoroastrianism
The dualism, and salvation were shared between the religions, and subsequent interactions between the religions are documented by events such as the release of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity by Zoroastrian Cyrus the Great in 537 BC, and the Biblical account of the Magi visiting the infant Jesus .
The Vendidad generally promotes procreation: "the man who has a wife is far above him who lives in continence; he who keeps a house is far above him who has none; he who has children is far above the childless man; he who has riches is far above him who has none." It details the penance for a worshipper who submits to sodomy under force as "Eight hundred stripes with the Aspahe-astra, eight hundred stripes with the Sraosho-charana." (equal to the penalty for breaking a contract with the value of an ox),[203] and declares that for those participating voluntarily "For that deed there is nothing that can pay, nothing that can atone, nothing that can cleanse from it; it is a trespass for which there is no atonement, for ever and ever". However, those not practicing the Religion of Mazda were pardoned for past actions upon conversion.[204] It has been argued that, in ancient times, those prohibitions against sodomy didn't apply to eunuchs.[205] East Asian religionsAmong the Taoic religions of East Asia, such as Taoism, passionate homosexual expression is usually discouraged because it is believed to not lead to human fulfillment.[206]
Burmese folk religionMany Nat Kadaws in traditional Burmese folk religion are members of the LGBT community.[207][208][209] Chinese folk religionTu'er Shen, also known as the Rabbit God, is a gay Chinese deity.[210][211] In 2006, Lu Wei-ming founded a temple for Tu'er Shen and Taoist worship in Yonghe District in the New Taipei City in Taiwan.[212][213][214] About 9,000 pilgrims visit the temple each year praying for a suitable (same-sex) partner.[215] The Wei-ming temple also performs love ceremonies for gay couples.[216][217] It is the world's only religious shrine for homosexuals.[218] ConfucianismAnalects of Confucius.[220]
Đạo MẫuIn Vietnam, many LGBT people find a safe community within the Đạo Mẫu religion, which is worship of the mother god.[221][222] Many LGBT people act as mediums during Đạo Mẫu rituals.[223] ShintoHistorically, Shinto "had no special code of morals and seems to have regarded sex as a natural phenomenon to be enjoyed with few inhibitions."[224] While Shinto beliefs are diverse, Japanese Shinto doesn't condemn homosexuality,[224] and the formally organized Konkokyo sect is fully affirming.[225][226][227] Multiple Shinto leaders advocated in support of gay marriage in Hawaii.[228] TaoismThere is no single official position on homosexuality in Taoism, as the term Taoism is used to describe a number of disparate religious traditions encompassing a variety of views. Although Taoist alchemy generally emphasized that ejaculation in heterosexual relationships represented a draining of the male's "life essence," this concept was not generally extended to non-heterosexual sex. In a similar way to Buddhism, Taoist schools sought throughout history to define what would be sexual misconduct. Broadly speaking, the precept against "sexual misconduct" in Taoism relates to extramarital sex. The term for a married couple (夫婦) usually in Chinese suggests a male with a female, though Taoist scripture itself does not explicitly say anything against same-sex relations.[229][230] Many sorts of precepts mentioned in the Yunji Qiqian (雲笈七籤), The Mini Daoist Canon, does not explicitly say anything against same-gender relations as well.[231]
Homosexuality is not unknown in Taoist history, such as during the Tang dynasty when Taoist nuns exchanged love poems.[232] As a sexual misconduct however would depend on what sect or school they were from as some traditions considered homosexuality to be misconduct and others did not mention it at all. There are also certain talismans recorded in different traditions that claim to "cure" a person of the "homosexual disease/desire". Attitudes about homosexuality within Taoism often reflect the values and sexual norms of broader Chinese society and what region of China the sect resided in (see Homosexuality in China). African Diasporic religionsCandombléWithin Candomblé, a syncretic religion found primarily in Brazil, there is widespread (though not universal) support for gay rights, many members are LGBT, and have performed gay marriages.[233][234][235] In Candomblé, homosexuality is usually accepted and explained by the sex of one's orisha.[236] Homosexuality would be more probable in a man with a female orisha, a woman with a male orisha, or any of them with an androgynous orisha (such as Olokun). Haitian VodouHomosexuality is religiously acceptable in Ghede Nibo is sometimes depicted as an effeminate drag queen and inspires those he inhabits to lascivious sexuality of all kinds.[242][243]
SanteríaPractitioners of Santería, primarily found in Cuba, generally (though not universally) welcome LGBT members and include them in religious or ritual activities.[244][245] UmbandaAlso a Brazilian syncretic religion, Umbanda houses generally support LGBT rights and have performed gay marriages.[246][235][233][247] New religious movementsAntoinismAntoinism, a new religious movement founded in Belgium in 1910, does not provide any prescription on issues such as sexuality,[248] as it considers that this is not related to spirituality; homosexuality is not deemed a sin and there is nothing wrong to be gay and antoinist.[249] EckankarEckankar, an American new religious movement founded by Paul Twitchell in 1965, says on its website that "where legally recognized, same-sex marriages are performed, in the form of the ECK Wedding Ceremony, by ordained ministers of Eckankar".[250] Neo-DruidismThe Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids is a worldwide group dedicated to practicing, teaching, and developing modern Druidry and has more than 25,000 members in 50 countries. The Order is LGBT-affirming within a larger framework of support for civil rights, love of justice, and the love of all existences.[251] RaëlismKorea Queer Culture Festival (2014)Raëlism, an international new religious movement and UFO religion which was founded in France in 1974,[252][253] promotes a positive outlook towards human sexuality, including homosexuality.[252][253][254][255] Its founder Raël recognised same-sex marriage, and a Raëlian press release stated that sexual orientation is genetic and it also likened discrimination against gay people to racism.[256] Some Raëlian leaders have performed licensed same-sex marriages.[257] Santa MuerteThe cult of recognizes gay marriage and performs religious wedding ceremonies for homosexual couples.[269][270][271][272] According to R. Andrew Chesnut, Ph.D. in Latin American history and professor of Religious studies, the cult of Santa Muerte is the single fastest-growing new religious movement in the Americas.[258]
Pre-colonial religions of the Americas Many Nations had respected ceremonial, religious, and social roles for gender nonconforming Moches, Zapotecs, and the Tupinambá of Brazil and were accepted in their various religions.[278][279]
However, the indigenous peoples of the Americas include hundreds of cultures with varying views on sex, gender, and spirituality. Additionally, First Nations and indigenous views on gender and sexuality may not fall within modern Western categorizations of sex and gender.[280][281][282][283][284] Pre-colonial religions of the PhilippinesFilipino shamans, often known as babaylan held positions of authority as religious leaders or healers in some precolonial Philippine societies.[285] Cross-dressing or gender nonconforming males sometimes took on the role of the female babaylan.[286] Early historical accounts record the existence of male babaylans who wore female clothes and took the demeanor of a woman.[287][288] Anatomy was not the only basis for gender. Being male or female was based primarily on occupation, appearance, actions and sexuality. A male babaylan could partake in romantic and sexual relations with other men without being judged by society.[289] A small number of Filipinos practice local indigenous religions today.[290] PaganismRadical FaeriesThe Radical Faeries are a worldwide queer spiritual movement, founded in 1979 in the United States. WiccaThe Wiccan SatanismBoth major Satanic traditions, The Satanic Temple and the Church of Satan,[293] emphasise the right of the individual to free sexual expression. Lucien Greaves, spokesperson of The Satanic Temple, has stated the Temple "will always fight… to the death to ensure that there are equal rights for the gay community."[294] Unitarian UniversalismThe first ordained minister of a major religious sect in the U.S. or Canada to come out as gay was the UU Minister James Stoll in 1969.[295] There have been denominational resolutions supporting LGBTQ people since 1970, when a resolution was passed that condemned discrimination against homosexuals. Unitarian Universalism was the first denomination to accept openly transgender people as full members with eligibility to become clergy; in 1988 the first openly transgender person was ordained by the Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA).[296][297][298]
The UUA has supported marriage equality since 1996 HumanismHumanism is a non-religious, non-theistic approach to life that supports full equality for LGBTQ individuals,[305][306] including the right to marry.[307][308] Humanism and Its Aspirations, a statement of humanist principles from the American Humanist Association, states that "humanists are concerned for the well being of all, are committed to diversity, and respect those of differing yet humane views...work to uphold the equal enjoyment of human rights and civil liberties in an open, secular society and maintain it is a civic duty to participate in the democratic process and a planetary duty to protect nature's integrity, diversity, and beauty in a secure, sustainable manner."[309] The American Humanist Association provides an LGBT Humanist Pride award[310] and has funded an LGBT-inclusive prom for Itawamba County Agricultural High School in Mississippi.[311] The organisation LGBT Humanists UK "is a United Kingdom-based not-for-profit that campaigns for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) equality and human rights and promotes Humanism as an ethical worldview." It was formerly an independent group, but since 2012 has been a part of the charity Humanists UK. In 2009 they gave Stephen Fry an award "for his services to humanism and gay rights."[312][313] Humanists UK Chief Executive International Humanist and Ethical Union, of which Copson is also President, he went further, saying "Humanism is the ultimate, long-standing and unfaltering ally of LGBTI people everywhere".[315]
Unification ChurchUnification Church views heterosexual marriage which becomes "fruitful" by raising their children as God's ideal. Any other sexual relationship, than between husband and wife, is considered a sin. Unification Church founder Sun Myung Moon opposed homosexuality and free sex and in some of his speeches compared such relationships to "dirty dung filled water" and that "Satan and dirty dung-eating dogs go after that".[316] He prophesied that "gays will be eliminated" in a "purge on God's orders".[317] Religious groups and public policyOpposition to LGBT rights is often associated with conservative religious views. The American Family Association and other religious groups have promoted boycotts of corporations whose policies support the LGBT community.
In conservative Islamic nations, laws generally prohibit same-sex sexual behaviour, and interpretation of See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to Homosexuality and religion.
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