Samanid Empire

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Samanid Empire
سامانیان
819–999
Extent of the Samanid realm at the death of Nasr II in 943
Extent of the Samanid realm at the death of Nasr II in 943
Capital
Common languages
Religion
Nestorianism, Zoroastrianism)
GovernmentHereditary monarchy
Amir (Emir) 
• 819–864/5
Ahmad ibn Asad
• 999
'Abd al-Malik II
Historical eraMiddle Ages
• Established
819
• Disestablished
999
Area
928 est.[6][7]2,850,000 km2 (1,100,000 sq mi)
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Saffarid dynasty
Abbasid Caliphate
Alid dynasties of northern Iran
Banijurids
Bukhar Khudahs
Principality of Ushrusana
Principality of Farghana
Sogdia
Ghaznavid dynasty
Karakhanids
Banu Ilyas
Farighunids
Muhtajids
Buyid dynasty

The Samanid Empire (

Persia and Central Asia
, from 819 to 999.

Four brothers—

feudal system used by the Samanids. It was also under him that the Samanids became independent of Abbasid
authority. However, by 945, the government was under the de facto control of the Turkic military slave faction, and the Samanid family's authority had become purely symbolic.

The Samanid Empire is part of the

The Samanids promoted the arts, giving rise to the advancement of science and literature, and thus attracted scholars such as

Saffarids while continuing to use Arabic for sciences as well as religious studies. They considered themselves to be descendants of the Sasanian Empire.[10][9] In a famous edict, Samanid authorities declared that "here, in this region, the language is Persian, and the kings of this realm are Persian kings."[9]

History

Origins

al-Saffah (r. 750–754) as he receives pledges of allegiance in Kufa
. This is the earliest known extant prose book in the Persian language.

The Samanid dynasty was founded by

Rise

The Samanids in Herat (819–857)

Ilyas died in 856, and his son Ibrahim ibn Ilyas became his successor. The Tahirid governor of Khorasan, Muhammad ibn Tahir, subsequently appointed him as the commander of his army, and sent him on an expedition against the Saffarid ruler Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar in Sistan. After facing defeat in battle near Pushang in 857, he fled to Nishapur, only to be captured by Ya'qub al-Saffar and sent to Sistan as a hostage.[14]

The Samanid dynasty in Transoxiana (819–892)

Map of Khorasan and Transoxiana.

In 839/40, Nuh seized

Isfijab from the nomadic pagan Turks living in the steppe. Consequently, he had a wall constructed around the city to protect it from their attacks. He died in 841/2—his two brothers Yahya and Ahmad, were then appointed as the joint rulers of the city by the Tahirid governor of Khorasan.[14] After Yahya died in 855, Ahmad took control over Châch, thus becoming the ruler of most of Transoxiana. He died in 864/5; his son Nasr I received Farghana and Samarkand, while his other son Ya'qub received Châch (areas around modern Tashkent/Chachkent).[15]

Meanwhile, the Tahirids' authority had significantly weakened after suffering several defeats to Saffarid ruler Ya'qub al-Saffar. Hence, causing the Tahirids to lose their grip over the Samanids, who became more or less independent. Nasr I, used this opportunity to strengthen his authority by sending his brother Ismail to Bukhara, which was in an unstable condition after suffering from raids by the Afrighid dynasty of Khwarazm. When Ismail reached the city, he was warmly received by its inhabitants, who saw him as one who could restore order.[15]

After not so long, disagreement over where to distribute tax money caused a conflict between the brothers. Ismail was eventually victorious in the dynastic struggle and took control of the Samanid state. However, Nasr had been the one who had been invested with Transoxiana, and the Abbasid

caliphs continued to recognize him as the rightful ruler.[16] Because of this, Ismail continued to recognize his brother as well, but Nasr was completely powerless, a situation that would continue until his death in August 892.[15]

Final unification and height of power (892–907)

Picture of the Samanid Mausoleum, the burial site of Ismail Samani.

Following Nasr's death, Ismail moved the capital of the Samanid dynasty from Samarkand to Bukhara.[17] A few months later the Saffarid emir, Ya'qub al-Saffar, also died and was succeeded by his brother Amr ibn al-Layth, who saw himself as the heir of the Saffarids.[18] In the spring of 900, Amr clashed with Ismail near Balkh, but was defeated and taken into captivity.[19] Ismail thereafter sent him to Baghdad, where he was executed.[20] Ismail was thereafter recognized as the ruler of all of Khorasan and Transoxiana by the caliph.[20] Furthermore, he also received the investiture over Tabaristan, Ray and Isfahan.[20] It was also during this period that the Afrighid dynasty was forced into submission.[20]

Before Ismail Samani's major victory against the Saffarids, he had made various expeditions in Transoxiana; in 892, he put an end to the

Karluk Turks, taking Talas and converting the Nestorian church there into a mosque.[21][22] The same year, he conducted a campaign to gather slaves, taking ten to fifteen thousand captives.[23]
The
Samanid slave trade was the main trade income of the Samanid Empire, forming the base of economy of the state.[24]

In 900, Ismail sent an army under Muhammad ibn Harun al-Sarakhsi against Muhammad ibn Zayd, the Zaydi ruler of Tabaristan and Gorgan. The invasion was successful; Muhammad ibn Zayd was killed and Tabaristan was conquered by the Samanids. However, Muhammad ibn Harun shortly revolted, forcing Ismail himself to invade the region the following year. Muhammad ibn Harun thereafter fled to Daylam, while Ismail reconquered Tabaristan and Gorgan.[25] In 901, Amr Saffari was defeated at the battle of Balkh by the Samanids, which reduced the Saffarid dynasty to a minor tributary in Sistan.[26] It was during this period that the Samanids were at their height of power, ruling as far as Qazvin in the west[27] and Peshawar in the east.

Ismail is known in history as a competent general and a strong ruler; many stories about him are written in Arabic and Persian sources. Furthermore, because of his campaigns in the north, his empire was so safe from enemy incursions that the defences of Bukhara and Samarkand went unused. However, this later had consequences; at the end of the dynasty, the walls—earlier strong, but now falling apart—were greatly missed by the Samanids, who were constantly under attack by the

Karakhanids and other enemies.[25]

Ismail died in November 907, and was succeeded by his son Ahmad Samani (r. 907–914).

Intermediate period (907–961)

Not long after his accession, Ahmad invaded Sistan; by 911, Sistan was under complete Samanid control, and Ahmad's cousin Abu Salih Mansur was appointed as its governor. Meanwhile, an Alid named Hasan al-Utrush was slowly re-establishing Zaydi over Tabaristan. In 913, Ahmad sent an army under Muhammad ibn Sa'luk to deal with him. Although the Samanid army was much larger, Hasan managed to emerge victorious. Ahmad, before he could plan another expedition to Tabaristan, was the following year murdered by some of his slaves in a tent near Bukhara.[28] During his reign, Ahmad is also said to have replaced the language of the court from Persian to Arabic, which made him unpopular among his subjects, and forced him to change it back to Persian. After Ahmad's death, his eight-year-old son Nasr II (r. 914–943) succeeded him.

Coin of Nasr II, minted in Nishapur (933/4).

Due to Nasr's youth, his prime minister

Abu 'Abd-Allah al-Jaihani took care over most of the state affairs. Jaihani was not only an experienced administrator, but also a prominent geographer and greatly educated man. Almost right after Nasr II had ascended the throne, several revolts erupted, the most dangerous one being under his paternal grand-uncle, Ishaq ibn Ahmad, who seized Samarkand and began minting coins there, while his son Abu Salih Mansur seized Nishapur and several cities in Khorasan. Ishaq was eventually defeated and captured, while Abu Salih Mansur died of natural causes in 915.[28] Some time later Nasr II once again had to deal with rebels; in 919, the governor of Khorasan, Husayn ibn Ali Marvarrudhi, rebelled against Samanid authority. Nasr responded by sending an army under Ahmad ibn Sahl to suppress the rebellion, which the latter managed to accomplish. After a few weeks, however, Ahmad shortly rebelled himself at Nishapur, made incursions into Gorgan, and then fortified himself in Merv to avoid a Samanid counter-attack. Nevertheless, the Samanid general Hamuya ibn Ali managed to lure Ahmad out of Merv, and defeated him in a battle at Marw al-Rudh
; he was captured and imprisoned in Bukhara, where he remained until his death in 920.

In the west, Nasr II clashed several times with

Ziyarid ruler Mardavij, who managed to conquer the region.[29][31] In 935, Nasr II re-established Samanid control in Gurgan and made Mardavij's successor Vushmgir his vassal. However, in 939 he declared independence, but was defeated the following year at Iskhabad
.

In 943 several Samanid army officers, angry at Nasr's support of

Isma'ili missionaries, formed a conspiracy to murder him. Nasr's son Nuh I, however, learned of the conspiracy. He went to a banquet designed to organize the plot and had the head of their leader cut off. To appease the other officers, he promised to stop the Isma'ili missionaries from continuing their activities. He then convinced his father to abdicate, who died of tuberculosis after a few months.[32]

Right when Nuh I ascended the throne, a revolt erupted in Khwarazm, which he managed to suppress. Later in 945, he had to deal with the

Abu 'Ali Chaghani, who refused to relinquish his post as governor of Khorasan to Ibrahim ibn Simjur. Abu 'Ali Chaghani then rebelled, and was joined by several prominent figures such as Abu Mansur Muhammad, whom he appointed as his commander-in-chief. In 947, he installed Nuh's uncle Ibrahim ibn Ahmad as amir in Bukhara. Abu 'Ali Chaghani then returned to his domains in Chaghaniyan
. Ibrahim, however, was unpopular with the people of Bukhara, and Nuh soon retaliated by retaking the city and blinding Ibrahim and two brothers.

When Abu Ali Chaghani received the news of the re-capture of Bukhara, he once again marched towards it, but was defeated by an army sent by Nuh and withdrew back to Chaghaniyan. After some time, he left the region and tried to obtain support from other Samanid vassals. Meanwhile, Nuh had Chaghaniyan ravaged

mountain people, but in the end made peace with Nuh, who allowed him to keep Chaghaniyan in return for sending his son Abu'l Muzaffar Abdallah as hostage to Bukhara.[33][35]

Iran in the mid-10th century.

By 945, the Turkic military slave faction (who were formerly recruited by the Samanid rulers in positions of governance) were fully in charge of the government. By this time, the Samanid family only held nominal power; similar to how the

Buyids held de facto power over the Abbasid Caliphate around the same time.[36]

Alp Tigin, nominal vassal of the Samanids, conquered Ghazna in 962 from the Lawik dynasty.[37] The fifth of these commanders was Sebüktigin, who governed Ḡazna for twenty years till 387 AH/997 CE with the title (as it appears from his tomb inscription[38]) of al-ḥājeb al-ajall (most noble commander). He would later be the founder of an independent dynasty based in Ghazna, following the decline of the Samanid Empire in the 990s.[39]

Decline and fall (961–999)

The power of the Samanids began to crumble in the latter half of the 10th century. In 962, one of the

Karakhanids for control of Transoxiana, Sebük later took control of all the provinces south of the Oxus and established the Ghaznavid Empire
.

In 992, a

Oxus River thus became the boundary between the two rival empires.[42]

Isma'il Muntasir's attempt to resurrect the Samanid state (1000–1005)

“Battle Between Abu’l-Qasim and the Samanid Muntasir”, 14th century illustration.[43]

Isma'il Muntasir was the youngest son of Nuh II—he was imprisoned by the Karakhanids after their conquest of Bukhara in 999. Some time later, Isma'il managed to escape to Khwarazm, where he gained support. Driving the Karakhanids out of Bukhara, he then moved on to and captured Samarkand. The approach of the Karakhanid army, however, forced Isma'il to give up all of his possessions, following which he travelled to Khorasan, where he captured Nishapur. Mahmud's army, however, made its way to the region, and Isma'il decided it necessary to flee again.

In 1003 Isma'il came back to Transoxiana, where he requested and received assistance from the Oghuz Turks of the

Zarafshan
valley. They defeated the Karakhanids in several battles, even when Nasr Khan was involved. For various reasons, however, Isma'il came to feel that he could not rely on the Oghuz to restore him, so he went back to Khorasan. He tried to gain Mahmud's support for a campaign to restore the Samanid state, but failed. Some time afterwards, he returned to the Zarafshan valley, where he gained the support of the Oghuz and others. A Karakhanid army was defeated in May 1004, but subsequently the Oghuz deserted Isma'il during another battle, and his army fell apart.

Fleeing to Khorasan yet again, Isma'il attempted to reenter Transoxiana in the end of 1004. The Karakhanids stopped this and Isma'il was nearly killed. Following this, he sought the hospitality of an

Arab tribe near Merv
. Their chief, however, killed Isma'il in 1005. His death marked the defeat of the last attempt to restore the Samanid state. Descendants of the Samanid family continued to live in Transoxiana where they were well regarded, but their power was relatively broken.

Iranian intermezzo

Along with several other states, the Samanid Empire was part of the

Abbasid power and the rise of several successor states such as the Samanids and Buyids while in cultural terms, it witnessed the rise of new Persian as an administrative and literary language.[44]

Culture

Government

Silver medallion of the Samanid ruler Mansur I with bilingual Middle Persian and Arabic minted in Bukhara.
Obverse in Middle Persian: khvarrah apzut shahanshah "the King of Kings has increased the royal splendor"
Reverse in Arabic: la ilaha illa allah wahdahu la sharik lahu muhammad rasul allah al-muti' lillah al-malik al-muzaffar mansur bin nuh "There is no god but Allah, the One, there is no partner to Him, Muhammad is the meassenger of Allah, al-Muti' lillah, the victorious king, Mansur son of Nuh.

The system of the Samanid state was modelled after the Abbasid system,

sipah-salar (commander-in-chief).[45]

Like in the Abbasid Caliphate, Turkic slaves could rise to high office in the Samanid state, which would sometimes give them enough power to nearly make the ruler their puppet.[45]

Cultural and religious efforts

Great decorated panel from a Samanid residential complex, 9th-10th century, Afrasiab, Samarkand.[49]

The Samanids revived

Qur'an into Persian in the 9th century, populations under the Samanid empire began accepting Islam in significant numbers.[53] The arabization of the Samanids was clearly minimal compared to the almost entirely arabized Tahirids.[12] Despite Arabic literature and science flourishing in the Samanid Empire, its distance from Baghdad allowed the Samanids to be a crucial element in the renaissance of New Persian language and culture.[12] This Persianate culture variant was the first to use a language besides Arabic in Islamic culture.[54]

Although the Zoroastrian population had previously been suppressed by the Abbasid Caliphate,[55] according to Al-Masudi, the Samanid empire[a][56] still had fire-temples that were still being venerated by the present Zoroastrian population.[56] Despite the fact that the Samanids professed Sunni Islam, however, they were much more tolerant towards its Zoroastrian population than the previous empires.[57]

Through zealous missionary work as many as 30,000 tents of

Hanafi school of thought. The mass conversion of the Turks to Islam eventually led to a growing influence of the Ghaznavids, who would later rule the region.[citation needed
]

Under Nuh II, a Hanafi work, which was being used to contest Ismailism, was translated into Persian.[58]

Agriculture and trading were the economic bases of the Samanid State. The Samanids heavily engaged in trade with Europe. Thousands of Samanid coins have been found in the Baltic and Scandinavia.[59]

Literature

Bal'ami, with Persian miniature depicting the arrow of old Wahraz killing Masruq
, the Ethiopian king of Yemen.
enthroned receives the coffin of Dara.

During the 9th and 10th centuries, there was a large amount of growth in literature, mostly in poetry. It was during the Samanid period that

Fars, the homeland of the Persians. The best known poets of the Samanid period were Rudaki (d. 941), Daqiqi (d. 977) and Ferdowsi (d. 1020).[60]

Although Persian was the most-favored language,

al-Tha'alibi wrote an Arabic anthology named Yatimat al-Dahr ("The Unique Pearl"). The fourth section of the anthology included a detailed account of the poets that lived under the Samanids. It also states that the poets of Khwarazm mostly wrote in Arabic.[60]

The acknowledged founder of Persian classical poetry, and a man of great perception, was Rudaki, who was born in the village of

"Look at the cloud, how it cries like a grieving man

Thunder moans like a lover with a broken heart.
Now and then the sun peeks from behind the clouds
Like a prisoner hiding from the guard." – Rudaki

Another prominent poet was Shahid Balkhi, born in the village of Jakhudanak near Balkh. Not much is known about his life, but he is mentioned as being one of the best poets in the court of Nasr II, and one of the best scholars of the age. He was also a student of Rudaki, and had close relations with him. He died in 936, a few years before Rudaki's death. His death saddened Rudaki, who afterwards wrote an emotional elegy about him.[61]

Daqiqi, who was a native of

epic poem based on the history of the Iranians. However, by his death in 977, he had only managed to complete a small part of it, which was about the conflict between Gushtasp and Arjasp.[61]

However, the most prominent poet of that age was Ferdowsi, born in Tus in 940 to a dehqan family. It was during his youth that there was a period of growth under the Samanids. The rapid growth of interest in ancient Iranian history made him continue the work of Daqiqi, completing the Shahnameh in 994, only a few years before the fall of the Samanid Empire. He later completed a second version of the Shahnameh in 1010, which he presented to the Ghaznavid Sultan Mahmud. However, his work was not as appreciated by the Ghaznavids as it had been by the Samanids.[61]

Population

Under the Samanid Empire, the

Middle Iranian and New Persian. In the words of Negmatov, "they were the basis for the emergence and gradual consolidation of what became an Eastern Persian-Tajik ethnic identity."[62]

Language

Ferghana, Samarkand, and Bukhara were starting to be linguistically Persianized in originally Khwarazmian and Sogdian areas during Samanid rule.[63] The Persian language spread and led to the extinction of Eastern Iranian languages like Bactrian and Khwarezmian with only a tiny amount of Sogdian-descended Yaghnobi speakers remaining among the now Persian-speaking Tajik population of Central Asia. This was due to the fact that the Arab-Islamic army which invaded Central Asia at the time also included some Persians who later governed the region like the Samanids.[64] Persian was rooted into Central Asia by the Samanids.[4]

Intellectual life

In the 9th and 10th centuries, intellectual life in Transoxiana and Khorasan reached a high level. In the words of N.N. Negmatov, "It was inevitable that the local Samanid dynasty, seeking support among its literate classes, should cultivate and promote local cultural traditions, literacy and literature."[65]

The main Samanid towns –

Bunjikath, Hulbuk, Termez and others, became the major cultural centres under the state. Scholars, poets, artists and other men of education from many Muslim countries assembled in the Samanid capital of Bukhara, where a rich soil was created for the prosper of creative thought, thus making it one of the most distinguished cultural centres of the Eastern world. An outstanding library known as Siwān al-Hikma ("Storehouse of Wisdom") was put together in Bukhara, known for its various types of books.[66]

Arts

Due to extensive excavations at Nishapur, Iran, in the mid-twentieth century, Samanid pottery is well-represented in Islamic art collections around the world. These ceramics are largely made from earthenware and feature either calligraphic inscriptions of Arabic proverbs, or colorful figural decorations.[67] The Arabic proverbs often speak to the values of "Adab" culture—hospitality, generosity, and modesty.[68]

  • Lute player. Samanid (or Seljuk)[69] metal work, Khorezm, 10th century. Islamic Art Museum (Museum für Islamische Kunst), Berlin.[70]
    Lute player. Samanid (or
    Khorezm, 10th century. Islamic Art Museum (Museum für Islamische Kunst), Berlin.[70]
  • "Simurgh platter", Iran, Samanid dynasty. 9th-10th century. Islamic Art Museum (Museum für Islamische Kunst), Berlin.
    "Simurgh platter", Iran, Samanid dynasty. 9th-10th century. Islamic Art Museum (Museum für Islamische Kunst), Berlin.
  • Example of figural earthenware ceramics from Samanid period. From Nishapur, Iran, 10th century CE.
    Example of figural earthenware ceramics from Samanid period. From Nishapur, Iran, 10th century CE.
  • Bowl with Arabic inscription "Planning before work protects you from regret; prosperity and peace", 10th century CE, Iran.
    Bowl with Arabic inscription "Planning before work protects you from regret; prosperity and peace", 10th century CE, Iran.

Legacy

In commending the Samanids, the epic Persian poet Ferdowsi says of them:

کجا آن بزرگان ساسانیان
ز بهرامیان تا به سامانیان

"Where have all the great Sasanians gone?
From the

Bahrāmids
to the Samanids what has come upon?"

A Bukharian historian writing in 943 stated that Ismail Samani:

was indeed worthy and right for padishahship. He was an intelligent, just, compassionate person, one possessing reason and prescience...he conducted affairs with justice and good ethics. Whoever tyrannized people he would punish...In affairs of state he was always impartial.[71]

The celebrated scholar Nizam al-Mulk, in his famous work Siyasatnama, stated that Ismail Samani:

was extremely just, and his good qualities were many. He had pure faith in God (to Him be power and glory) and he was generous to the poor – to name only one of his notable virtues.[72]

The

Somoni currency of Tajikistan is named after the Samanids. A notable airline based in Dushanbe is also named Somon Air. Also, the highest mountain in Tajikistan and in the former Soviet Union is named after Ismail Samani.[73] The mountain was formerly known as "Stalin Peak" and "Communism Peak" but in 1998 the name was officially changed to Ismoil Somoni Peak
.

Samanid rulers

Bukhara Samarkand Ferghana Shash Herat
Umayyad governor of Khorasan, Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri
, under whose influence he became a Muslim and served the governor till his death. He was the founder of the Samanid dynasty)
Asad ibn Saman
Persian: اسد بن سامان
Nuh ibn Asad
Persian: نوح بن اسد
819–841/2
Ahmad ibn Asad
Persian: احمد بن اسد
819–864/5
Yahya ibn Asad
Persian: یحییٰ بن اسد
819–855
Ilyas ibn Asad
Persian: الیاس بن اسد
819–856
Ahmad ibn Asad
Persian: احمد بن اسد
819–864/5
Ibrahim ibn Ilyas
Persian: ابراهیم بن الیاس
856–867
Abu Ibrahim Isma'il ibn Ahmad
Persian
: ابو ابراهیم اسماعیل بن احمد
892–907
Nasr I
Persian: نصر بن احمد
864–892
Ya'qub ibn Ahmad
Persian: یعقوب بن احمد
?
Saffarids

Abu Ibrahim Isma'il ibn Ahmad
Persian
: ابو ابراهیم اسماعیل بن احمد
892–907
Ahmad ibn Isma'il
Persian: احمد بن اسماعیل
907–914
Nasr II
Persian: ابوالحسن نصر بن احمد
914–943
Nuh I
Persian: نوح بن نصر
943–954
Ibrahim ibn Ahmad
Persian: ابراهیم بن احمد
947
Abd al-Malik ibn Nuh I
Persian: عبدالملک بن نوح
954–961
Abu Salih Mansur ibn Nuh I
Persian: ابو صالح منصور بن نوح
961–976
Nuh ibn Mansur
Persian: نوح بن منصور
976–997
Abd al-Aziz
Persian: عبدالعزیز
992
Abu'l-Harith Mansur ibn Nuh II
Persian: ابو الحارث منصور بن نوح
997–999
Abd al-Malik ibn Nuh II
Persian: عبدالمالک بن نوح
999
Isma'il Muntasir ibn Nuh II
Persian: اسماعیل منتصر بن نوح
1000 – 1005
?

See also

Timeline
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Notes

  1. Khorasan

References

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Sources

Further reading

  • Schindel, Nikolaus (2017). "POLAND: The Sāmānid Hoard of Pepineg (?)/ Przemysl from the Year 1849". The Numismatic Chronicle. 177: 451–458.
    JSTOR 26637395
    .