European polecat: Difference between revisions
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The word "polecat" first appeared after the [[Norman Conquest of England]], written as ''polcat''. While the second syllable is largely self-explanatory, the origin of the first is unclear. It is possibly derived from the [[French language|French]] ''poule'', meaning "[[chicken]]", likely in reference to the species' fondness for poultry, or it may be a variant of the [[Old English]] ''ful'', meaning "foul". In Middle English, the species was referred to as ''foumart'', meaning "foul marten", in reference to its strong odour.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} In [[Old French]], the polecat was called ''fissau'', which was derived from the [[Low German]] and [[Scandinavian language|Scandinavian]] verb for "to make a disagreeable smell". This was later corrupted in English as ''fitchew'' or ''fitchet'', which itself became the word "fitch", which is used for the polecat's pelt.<ref name="j154">{{Harvnb|Johnston|1903|p=154}}</ref> The word ''fitchet'' is the [[root word]] for the North American [[fisher (animal)|fisher]], which was named by [[Dutch colonization of the Americas|Dutch colonists in America]] who noted similarities between the two species.<ref name="Powell1">{{cite journal|last=Powell |first=R.A. |year=1981 |title=Mammalian Species: ''Martes pennanti'' |publisher=The American Society of Mammalogists |pages=156:1–6 |url=http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-156-01-0001.pdf}}</ref> In some countries such as New Zealand, the term "fitch" has taken on a wider use to refer to related creatures such as ferrets, especially when farmed for their fur.<ref>"[http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pests/animal-pests-a-z/ferrets/docs-work/ DOC's work with ferrets]", New Zealand Department of Conservation. Retrieved 20 April 2014.</ref><ref>"[http://www.wildaboutnz.co.nz/2010/12/ferrets/ Ferrets]", "Wild about New Zealand". Retrieved 20 April 2014.</ref> |
The word "polecat" first appeared after the [[Norman Conquest of England]], written as ''polcat''. While the second syllable is largely self-explanatory, the origin of the first is unclear. It is possibly derived from the [[French language|French]] ''poule'', meaning "[[chicken]]", likely in reference to the species' fondness for poultry, or it may be a variant of the [[Old English]] ''ful'', meaning "foul". In Middle English, the species was referred to as ''foumart'', meaning "foul marten", in reference to its strong odour.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} In [[Old French]], the polecat was called ''fissau'', which was derived from the [[Low German]] and [[Scandinavian language|Scandinavian]] verb for "to make a disagreeable smell". This was later corrupted in English as ''fitchew'' or ''fitchet'', which itself became the word "fitch", which is used for the polecat's pelt.<ref name="j154">{{Harvnb|Johnston|1903|p=154}}</ref> The word ''fitchet'' is the [[root word]] for the North American [[fisher (animal)|fisher]], which was named by [[Dutch colonization of the Americas|Dutch colonists in America]] who noted similarities between the two species.<ref name="Powell1">{{cite journal|last=Powell |first=R.A. |year=1981 |title=Mammalian Species: ''Martes pennanti'' |publisher=The American Society of Mammalogists |pages=156:1–6 |url=http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-156-01-0001.pdf}}</ref> In some countries such as New Zealand, the term "fitch" has taken on a wider use to refer to related creatures such as ferrets, especially when farmed for their fur.<ref>"[http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pests/animal-pests-a-z/ferrets/docs-work/ DOC's work with ferrets]", New Zealand Department of Conservation. Retrieved 20 April 2014.</ref><ref>"[http://www.wildaboutnz.co.nz/2010/12/ferrets/ Ferrets]", "Wild about New Zealand". Retrieved 20 April 2014.</ref> |
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A 2002 article in [[The Mammal Society]]'s ''Mammal Review'' contested the European polecat's status as an animal indigenous to the British Isles on account of a scarce [[fossil record]] and [[linguistics|linguistic]] evidence. Unlike most native British mammals, the polecat's [[Welsh language|Welsh]] name (''ffwlbart'', derived from the [[Middle English]] ''foulmart'') is not of [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] origin, much as the Welsh names of invasive species such as the [[European rabbit]] and [[fallow deer]] (''cwningen'', derived from the Middle English ''konyng'' and ''danas'', derived from the [[Old French]] ''dain'', respectively) are of Middle English or Old French origin. Polecats are not mentioned in [[Anglo-Saxon literature|Anglo-Saxon]] or [[Welsh-language literature|Welsh literature]] prior to the [[Norman conquest of England]] in 1066, with the first recorded mention of the species in the Welsh language occurring in the 14th century's ''[[The Red Book of Hergest|Llyfr Coch Hergest]]'' and in English in [[Chaucer]]’s ''[[The Pardoner’s Tale]]'' (1383). In contrast, attestations of the Welsh word for [[pine marten]] (''bele''), date back at least to the 10th century [[Welsh Law]]s and possibly much earlier in northern England.<ref name="foulmart">Brown, Duncan (2002) [http://www.all-about-ferrets.com/support-files/foulmart.pdf The foulmart: what’s in a name?] ''Mammal Rev.'', Volume 32, No. 2, 145–149</ref> |
A 2002 article in [[The Mammal Society]]'s ''Mammal Review'' contested the European polecat's status as an animal indigenous to the British Isles on account of a scarce [[fossil record]] and [[linguistics|linguistic]] evidence. Unlike most native British mammals, the polecat's [[Welsh language|Welsh]] name (''ffwlbart'', derived from the [[Middle English]] ''foulmart'') is not of [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] origin, much as the Welsh names of invasive species such as the [[European rabbit]] and [[fallow deer]] (''cwningen'', derived from the Middle English ''konyng'' and ''danas'', derived from the [[Old French]] ''dain'', respectively) are of Middle English or Old French origin. Polecats are not mentioned in [[Anglo-Saxon literature|Anglo-Saxon]] or [[Welsh-language literature|Welsh literature]] prior to the [[Norman conquest of England]] in 1066, with the first recorded mention of the species in the Welsh language occurring in the 14th century's ''[[The Red Book of Hergest|Llyfr Coch Hergest]]'' and in English in [[Chaucer]]’s ''[[The Pardoner’s Tale]]'' (1383). In contrast, attestations of the Welsh word for [[pine marten]] (''bele''), date back at least to the 10th century [[Welsh Law]]s and possibly much earlier in northern England.<ref name="foulmart">Brown, Duncan (2002) [http://www.all-about-ferrets.com/support-files/foulmart.pdf The foulmart: what’s in a name?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903182308/http://www.all-about-ferrets.com/support-files/foulmart.pdf |date=2011-09-03 }} ''Mammal Rev.'', Volume 32, No. 2, 145–149</ref> |
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===Local and indigenous names=== |
===Local and indigenous names=== |
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==Evolution== |
==Evolution== |
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[[File:Gerrit smith mustelaputorius.png|150 px|thumb|Skull, as illustrated in [[Gerrit Smith Miller|Miller]]'s ''Catalogue of the Mammals of Western Europe (Europe exclusive of Russia) in the collection of the British Museum'']] |
[[File:Gerrit smith mustelaputorius.png|150 px|thumb|Skull, as illustrated in [[Gerrit Smith Miller|Miller]]'s ''Catalogue of the Mammals of Western Europe (Europe exclusive of Russia) in the collection of the British Museum'']] |
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The earliest true polecat was ''Mustela stromeri'', which appeared during the late [[Villafranchian period]]. It was considerably smaller than the present form, thus indicating polecats evolved at a relatively late period. The oldest modern polecat fossils occur in Germany, [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and France, and date back to the [[Middle Pleistocene]]. The European polecat's closest relatives are the [[steppe polecat]] and [[black-footed ferret]], with which it is thought to have shared ''Mustela stromeri'' as a [[common ancestor]]. The European polecat is, however, not as maximally adapted in the direction of [[carnivore|carnivory]] as the steppe polecat, being less specialised in skull structure and dentition.<ref name="h480">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|pp=480–481}}</ref><ref name="k98">{{Harvnb|Kurtén|1968|pp=98–100}}</ref><ref name="s1115">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1115–1117}}</ref><ref>Kurtén Björn (1980), ''Pleistocene mammals of North America'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|0-231-03733-3}}</ref> The European polecat likely diverged from the steppe polecat 1.5 million years ago based on [[RBP3|IRBP]], though [[cytochrome b]] transversions indicate a younger date of 430,000 years.<ref>Sato, J., T. Hosada, W. Mieczyslaw, K. Tsuchiya, Y. Yamamoto, H. Suzuki. 2003. ''[http://www.fukuyama-u.ac.jp/life/bio/animal/jsato/Sato2003.pdf Phylogenetic relationships and divergence times among mustelids (Mammalia: Carnivora) based on nucleotide sequences of the nuclear interphotoreceptor retinoid binding protein and mitochondrial cytochrome b genes]''. Zoologial Science, 20: 243-264.</ref> It is also closely related to the [[European mink]], with which it can hybridise.<ref name="s1086">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1086–1088}}</ref> |
The earliest true polecat was ''Mustela stromeri'', which appeared during the late [[Villafranchian period]]. It was considerably smaller than the present form, thus indicating polecats evolved at a relatively late period. The oldest modern polecat fossils occur in Germany, [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and France, and date back to the [[Middle Pleistocene]]. The European polecat's closest relatives are the [[steppe polecat]] and [[black-footed ferret]], with which it is thought to have shared ''Mustela stromeri'' as a [[common ancestor]]. The European polecat is, however, not as maximally adapted in the direction of [[carnivore|carnivory]] as the steppe polecat, being less specialised in skull structure and dentition.<ref name="h480">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|pp=480–481}}</ref><ref name="k98">{{Harvnb|Kurtén|1968|pp=98–100}}</ref><ref name="s1115">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1115–1117}}</ref><ref>Kurtén Björn (1980), ''Pleistocene mammals of North America'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|0-231-03733-3}}</ref> The European polecat likely diverged from the steppe polecat 1.5 million years ago based on [[RBP3|IRBP]], though [[cytochrome b]] transversions indicate a younger date of 430,000 years.<ref>Sato, J., T. Hosada, W. Mieczyslaw, K. Tsuchiya, Y. Yamamoto, H. Suzuki. 2003. ''[http://www.fukuyama-u.ac.jp/life/bio/animal/jsato/Sato2003.pdf Phylogenetic relationships and divergence times among mustelids (Mammalia: Carnivora) based on nucleotide sequences of the nuclear interphotoreceptor retinoid binding protein and mitochondrial cytochrome b genes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003184324/http://www.fukuyama-u.ac.jp/life/bio/animal/jsato/Sato2003.pdf |date=2011-10-03 }}''. Zoologial Science, 20: 243-264.</ref> It is also closely related to the [[European mink]], with which it can hybridise.<ref name="s1086">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1086–1088}}</ref> |
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===Domestication=== |
===Domestication=== |
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[[File:Ferret 2008.png|150 px]] |
[[File:Ferret 2008.png|150 px]] |
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|Linnaeus, 1758 |
|Linnaeus, 1758 |
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|A [[domestication|domesticated]] form, its skull is generally typical in conformation to the nominate subspecies, though with features in common with the steppe polecat.<ref name="s1115"/> Typically, the dark facial fur does not extend to the nose, while the pale cheek patches are very extensive and contrast poorly with the dark mask. One or more paws may be white, with white guard hairs often being well distributed over the body, particularly on the hind quarters.<ref name="kitch">Kitchener, Andrew (2002), [http://www.vwt.org.uk/docs/polecat/polecats-and-ferrets-how-to-tell-them-apart.pdf Polecats and Ferrets: How to tell them apart], The Vincent Wildlife Trust, {{ISBN|0946081476}}</ref> |
|A [[domestication|domesticated]] form, its skull is generally typical in conformation to the nominate subspecies, though with features in common with the steppe polecat.<ref name="s1115"/> Typically, the dark facial fur does not extend to the nose, while the pale cheek patches are very extensive and contrast poorly with the dark mask. One or more paws may be white, with white guard hairs often being well distributed over the body, particularly on the hind quarters.<ref name="kitch">Kitchener, Andrew (2002), [http://www.vwt.org.uk/docs/polecat/polecats-and-ferrets-how-to-tell-them-apart.pdf Polecats and Ferrets: How to tell them apart] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004223159/http://www.vwt.org.uk/docs/polecat/polecats-and-ferrets-how-to-tell-them-apart.pdf |date=2013-10-04 }}, The Vincent Wildlife Trust, {{ISBN|0946081476}}</ref> |
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|<small>''albus'' (Bechstein, 1801)</small><br /> |
|<small>''albus'' (Bechstein, 1801)</small><br /> |
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===Enemies and competitors=== |
===Enemies and competitors=== |
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The polecat may be preyed upon by [[red fox]]es,<ref name="maxwell"/> and both [[wildcat|wild]] and [[domestic cat]]s.<ref name="USSR">Heptner, V. G. & Sludskii, A. A. 1992. [https://archive.org/details/mammalsofsov221992gept ''Mammals of the Soviet Union]. Vol. II, part 2, Carnivores(Feloidea)'', Leiden, E. J. Brill. 784 pp. {{ISBN|90-04-08876-8}}</ref> Although the polecat can coexist with the [[European mink]] (though there is one record of a polecat attacking a European mink and dragging it to its burrow<ref name="s1104">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1104–1105}}</ref>), it suffers in areas where the invasive [[American mink]] also occurs, as the latter species feeds on the same mammalian species as the polecat much more frequently than the European mink, and has been known to drive the polecat out of wetland habitats.<ref>Sidorovich, V. E., MacDonald, D. W., Kruuk, H. & Krasko, A., 2000. ''[http://www.smallcarnivoreconservation.org/sccwiki/images/5/58/SCC_22_fragmented.pdf Behavioural interactions between the naturalized American mink Mustela vison and the native riparian mustelids, NE Belarus, with implications for population changes]''. Small Carnivore Conservation, 22: 1–5.</ref> In areas where the European polecat is sympatric with the [[steppe polecat]], the two species overlap greatly in choice of food, though the former tends to consume more household foods and birds, while the latter preys on mammals more frequently.<ref>Lanszki, J.; Heltai, M. ''[http://thezone.hu/FTP/carnivora.thezone.hu/kozlemenyek/2007-MammalianBiology_72_p49-53.pdf Diet of the European polecat and the steppe polecat in Hungary]'', 2007, Mammalian Biology 72: 49-53</ref> There is at least one record of a [[beech marten]] killing a polecat.<ref name="s902">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=902}}</ref> The European polecat may prey on the much smaller least weasel.<ref name="s992">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=992}}</ref> |
The polecat may be preyed upon by [[red fox]]es,<ref name="maxwell"/> and both [[wildcat|wild]] and [[domestic cat]]s.<ref name="USSR">Heptner, V. G. & Sludskii, A. A. 1992. [https://archive.org/details/mammalsofsov221992gept ''Mammals of the Soviet Union]. Vol. II, part 2, Carnivores(Feloidea)'', Leiden, E. J. Brill. 784 pp. {{ISBN|90-04-08876-8}}</ref> Although the polecat can coexist with the [[European mink]] (though there is one record of a polecat attacking a European mink and dragging it to its burrow<ref name="s1104">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1104–1105}}</ref>), it suffers in areas where the invasive [[American mink]] also occurs, as the latter species feeds on the same mammalian species as the polecat much more frequently than the European mink, and has been known to drive the polecat out of wetland habitats.<ref>Sidorovich, V. E., MacDonald, D. W., Kruuk, H. & Krasko, A., 2000. ''[http://www.smallcarnivoreconservation.org/sccwiki/images/5/58/SCC_22_fragmented.pdf Behavioural interactions between the naturalized American mink Mustela vison and the native riparian mustelids, NE Belarus, with implications for population changes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316132159/http://www.smallcarnivoreconservation.org/sccwiki/images/5/58/SCC_22_fragmented.pdf |date=2012-03-16 }}''. Small Carnivore Conservation, 22: 1–5.</ref> In areas where the European polecat is sympatric with the [[steppe polecat]], the two species overlap greatly in choice of food, though the former tends to consume more household foods and birds, while the latter preys on mammals more frequently.<ref>Lanszki, J.; Heltai, M. ''[http://thezone.hu/FTP/carnivora.thezone.hu/kozlemenyek/2007-MammalianBiology_72_p49-53.pdf Diet of the European polecat and the steppe polecat in Hungary] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110831024835/http://thezone.hu/FTP/carnivora.thezone.hu/kozlemenyek/2007-MammalianBiology_72_p49-53.pdf |date=2011-08-31 }}'', 2007, Mammalian Biology 72: 49-53</ref> There is at least one record of a [[beech marten]] killing a polecat.<ref name="s902">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=902}}</ref> The European polecat may prey on the much smaller least weasel.<ref name="s992">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=992}}</ref> |
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==Hybridisation== |
==Hybridisation== |
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[[File:Ferret-Polecat-Hybrid.jpg|left|thumb|Heads of a '''1)''' polecat, '''2)''' ferret and '''3)''' polecat-ferret hybrid]] |
[[File:Ferret-Polecat-Hybrid.jpg|left|thumb|Heads of a '''1)''' polecat, '''2)''' ferret and '''3)''' polecat-ferret hybrid]] |
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{{Rquote|right|... ecologically, polecat-European mink hybrids are indeed something between the European mink and polecat. Hybrids acted both as a semiaquatic predator like the European mink, and as a more terrestrial predator, like the polecat. They changed feeding habits between being a generalist predator basing its diet on amphibians, small rodents and birds (like the polecat) to being a frog eater similar to the European mink. Even in daily activity hybrids were intermediate between the two hybridized species.|Vadim E. Sidorovich, of the IUCN/SSC Mustelid, Viverrid & Procyonid Specialist Group<ref name="sidorovich"/>}} |
{{Rquote|right|... ecologically, polecat-European mink hybrids are indeed something between the European mink and polecat. Hybrids acted both as a semiaquatic predator like the European mink, and as a more terrestrial predator, like the polecat. They changed feeding habits between being a generalist predator basing its diet on amphibians, small rodents and birds (like the polecat) to being a frog eater similar to the European mink. Even in daily activity hybrids were intermediate between the two hybridized species.|Vadim E. Sidorovich, of the IUCN/SSC Mustelid, Viverrid & Procyonid Specialist Group<ref name="sidorovich"/>}} |
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In some parts of the British Isles, the abandoning of domestic [[ferret]]s has led to ferret-polecat crossbreeds living in the wild. Ferrets were likely first brought to Britain after the [[Norman Conquest of England]], or as late as the fourteenth century.<ref name="davison">Davison, A., et al. (1999) ''[http://www.vwt.org.uk/downloads/HybridizationPolecatsFerrets.pdf Hybridization and the phylogenetic relationship between polecats and domestic ferrets in Britain]'', Biological Conservation 87 :155-161</ref> It is currently impossible to distinguish pure polecats from hybrids through DNA analysis, as the two forms are too closely related and intermixed to be separated through modern genetic methods.<ref>[http://www.vwt.org.uk/downloads/Polecat%20FAQs.pdf Polecat FAQs] © The Vincent Wildlife Trust 2010</ref> Crossbreeds between the two animals typically have a distinct white throat patch, white feet and white hairs interspersed among the fur.<ref name="h485"/> Typically, first generation crossbreeds between polecats and ferrets develop their wild parents' fear of humans if left with their mothers during the critical socialisation period between 7½ and 8½ weeks of age.<ref name="poole">Poole TB (1972) ''Some behavioral differences between European polecat,'' Mustela putorius, ''ferret,'' M furo, ''and their hybrids''. J. Zool 166:25–35</ref> Occasionally, supposed ferret-polecat crossbreeds are advertised as superior to pure ferrets for the purposes of [[rabbiting]], though actual crossbreeds are very likely to be less handleable, less willing to familiarise themselves with dogs, and are more likely to kill their quarry outright rather than simply flush it from its burrow.<ref>Plummer, David Brian (2001) ''In Pursuit of Coney'', Coch Y Bonddu Books, {{ISBN|0-9533648-8-7}}</ref> |
In some parts of the British Isles, the abandoning of domestic [[ferret]]s has led to ferret-polecat crossbreeds living in the wild. Ferrets were likely first brought to Britain after the [[Norman Conquest of England]], or as late as the fourteenth century.<ref name="davison">Davison, A., et al. (1999) ''[http://www.vwt.org.uk/downloads/HybridizationPolecatsFerrets.pdf Hybridization and the phylogenetic relationship between polecats and domestic ferrets in Britain] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727010306/http://www.vwt.org.uk/downloads/HybridizationPolecatsFerrets.pdf |date=2011-07-27 }}'', Biological Conservation 87 :155-161</ref> It is currently impossible to distinguish pure polecats from hybrids through DNA analysis, as the two forms are too closely related and intermixed to be separated through modern genetic methods.<ref>[http://www.vwt.org.uk/downloads/Polecat%20FAQs.pdf Polecat FAQs] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727010228/http://www.vwt.org.uk/downloads/Polecat%20FAQs.pdf |date=2011-07-27 }} © The Vincent Wildlife Trust 2010</ref> Crossbreeds between the two animals typically have a distinct white throat patch, white feet and white hairs interspersed among the fur.<ref name="h485"/> Typically, first generation crossbreeds between polecats and ferrets develop their wild parents' fear of humans if left with their mothers during the critical socialisation period between 7½ and 8½ weeks of age.<ref name="poole">Poole TB (1972) ''Some behavioral differences between European polecat,'' Mustela putorius, ''ferret,'' M furo, ''and their hybrids''. J. Zool 166:25–35</ref> Occasionally, supposed ferret-polecat crossbreeds are advertised as superior to pure ferrets for the purposes of [[rabbiting]], though actual crossbreeds are very likely to be less handleable, less willing to familiarise themselves with dogs, and are more likely to kill their quarry outright rather than simply flush it from its burrow.<ref>Plummer, David Brian (2001) ''In Pursuit of Coney'', Coch Y Bonddu Books, {{ISBN|0-9533648-8-7}}</ref> |
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Polecats are able to hybridise with the rare [[European mink]], producing offspring termed ''khor'-tumak'' by furriers<ref name="s1086"/> and ''khonorik'' (from Russian words for ferret and mink) by fanciers.<ref name="khonorik">{{cite web|url=http://www.ferret.ru/eng/khonorik.html|title=Khonorik: Hybrids between Mustelidae|publisher=Russian Ferret Society|accessdate=9 May 2011}}</ref> Such hybridisation is very rare in the wild, and typically only occurs where European minks are declining.<ref>LODÉ T., GUIRAL G. & PELTIER D. 2005. European mink-polecat hybridization events: hazards from natural process ? Journal of Heredity 96 (2): 1-8</ref> A polecat-mink hybrid has a poorly defined facial mask, yellow fur on the ears, grey-yellow underfur and long, dark brown guard hairs. It is fairly large, with a male attaining the peak sizes known for European polecats (weighing 1,120-1,746 g and measuring 41–47 cm in length), and a female is much larger than female European minks (weighing 742 g and measuring 37 cm in length).<ref name="sidorovich">Sidorovich, V. (2001) ''[http://www.smallcarnivoreconservation.org/sccwiki/images/1/10/SCC_24.pdf Finding on the ecology of hybrids between the European mink Mustela lutreola and polecat M. putorius at the Lovat upper reaches, NE Belarus]'' Small Carnivore Conservation 24: 1-5</ref> The majority of polecat-mink hybrids have skulls bearing greater similarities to those of polecats than to minks.<ref name="tumanov"/> Hybrids can swim well like minks and burrow for food like polecats. They are very difficult to tame and breed, as males are [[sterility (physiology)|sterile]], though females are fertile.<ref name="khonorik"/><ref name="tumanov">Tumanov, Igor L. & Abramov, Alexei V. (2002) ''[http://www.smallcarnivoreconservation.org/sccwiki/images/8/8b/SCC_27.pdf ''A study of the hybrids between the European Mink'' Mustela lutreola ''and the Polecat'' M. putorius] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728032220/http://www.smallcarnivoreconservation.org/sccwiki/images/8/8b/SCC_27.pdf |date=2011-07-28 }} Small Carnivore Conservation 27: 29-31</ref> The first captive polecat-mink hybrid was created in 1978 by Soviet zoologist Dr. Dmitry Ternovsky of [[Novosibirsk]]. Originally bred for their fur (which was more valuable than that of either parent species), the breeding of these hybrids declined as European mink populations decreased.<ref name="khonorik"/> Studies on the behavioural ecology of free-ranging polecat-mink hybrids in the upper reaches of the [[Lovat River]] indicate hybrids will stray from aquatic habitats more readily than pure minks, and will tolerate both parent species entering their territories, though the hybrid's larger size (especially the male's) may deter intrusion. During the summer period, the diets of wild polecat-mink hybrids are more similar to those of minks than to the polecats, as they feed predominantly on frogs. During the winter, their diets overlap more with those of polecats, and will eat a larger proportion of [[rodent]]s than in the summer, though they still rely heavily on [[frog]]s and rarely scavenge ungulate carcasses as polecats do.<ref name="sidorovich"/> |
Polecats are able to hybridise with the rare [[European mink]], producing offspring termed ''khor'-tumak'' by furriers<ref name="s1086"/> and ''khonorik'' (from Russian words for ferret and mink) by fanciers.<ref name="khonorik">{{cite web|url=http://www.ferret.ru/eng/khonorik.html|title=Khonorik: Hybrids between Mustelidae|publisher=Russian Ferret Society|accessdate=9 May 2011}}</ref> Such hybridisation is very rare in the wild, and typically only occurs where European minks are declining.<ref>LODÉ T., GUIRAL G. & PELTIER D. 2005. European mink-polecat hybridization events: hazards from natural process ? Journal of Heredity 96 (2): 1-8</ref> A polecat-mink hybrid has a poorly defined facial mask, yellow fur on the ears, grey-yellow underfur and long, dark brown guard hairs. It is fairly large, with a male attaining the peak sizes known for European polecats (weighing 1,120-1,746 g and measuring 41–47 cm in length), and a female is much larger than female European minks (weighing 742 g and measuring 37 cm in length).<ref name="sidorovich">Sidorovich, V. (2001) ''[http://www.smallcarnivoreconservation.org/sccwiki/images/1/10/SCC_24.pdf Finding on the ecology of hybrids between the European mink Mustela lutreola and polecat M. putorius at the Lovat upper reaches, NE Belarus] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316132136/http://www.smallcarnivoreconservation.org/sccwiki/images/1/10/SCC_24.pdf |date=2012-03-16 }}'' Small Carnivore Conservation 24: 1-5</ref> The majority of polecat-mink hybrids have skulls bearing greater similarities to those of polecats than to minks.<ref name="tumanov"/> Hybrids can swim well like minks and burrow for food like polecats. They are very difficult to tame and breed, as males are [[sterility (physiology)|sterile]], though females are fertile.<ref name="khonorik"/><ref name="tumanov">Tumanov, Igor L. & Abramov, Alexei V. (2002) ''[http://www.smallcarnivoreconservation.org/sccwiki/images/8/8b/SCC_27.pdf ''A study of the hybrids between the European Mink'' Mustela lutreola ''and the Polecat'' M. putorius] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728032220/http://www.smallcarnivoreconservation.org/sccwiki/images/8/8b/SCC_27.pdf |date=2011-07-28 }} Small Carnivore Conservation 27: 29-31</ref> The first captive polecat-mink hybrid was created in 1978 by Soviet zoologist Dr. Dmitry Ternovsky of [[Novosibirsk]]. Originally bred for their fur (which was more valuable than that of either parent species), the breeding of these hybrids declined as European mink populations decreased.<ref name="khonorik"/> Studies on the behavioural ecology of free-ranging polecat-mink hybrids in the upper reaches of the [[Lovat River]] indicate hybrids will stray from aquatic habitats more readily than pure minks, and will tolerate both parent species entering their territories, though the hybrid's larger size (especially the male's) may deter intrusion. During the summer period, the diets of wild polecat-mink hybrids are more similar to those of minks than to the polecats, as they feed predominantly on frogs. During the winter, their diets overlap more with those of polecats, and will eat a larger proportion of [[rodent]]s than in the summer, though they still rely heavily on [[frog]]s and rarely scavenge ungulate carcasses as polecats do.<ref name="sidorovich"/> |
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The European polecat can also hybridise with the Asian [[steppe polecat]] or the North American [[black-footed ferret]] to produce fertile offspring.<ref name="davison"/> European-steppe polecat hybrids are very rare, despite their [[sympatry]] in several areas. Nevertheless, hybrids have been recorded in southern [[Ukraine]], the [[Kursk Oblast|Kursk]] and [[Voronezh Oblast]]s, the Trans-[[Carpathians]] and several other localities.<ref name="s1144">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1144–1145}}</ref> |
The European polecat can also hybridise with the Asian [[steppe polecat]] or the North American [[black-footed ferret]] to produce fertile offspring.<ref name="davison"/> European-steppe polecat hybrids are very rare, despite their [[sympatry]] in several areas. Nevertheless, hybrids have been recorded in southern [[Ukraine]], the [[Kursk Oblast|Kursk]] and [[Voronezh Oblast]]s, the Trans-[[Carpathians]] and several other localities.<ref name="s1144">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1144–1145}}</ref> |
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===France=== |
===France=== |
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The European polecat is present in all of France's territories, excepting [[Corsica]], and has been in a state of decline for several decades.<ref>LODÉ T. 2006. Can low densities of carnivores result in genetic depletion ? An investigation within European polecat populations. Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetic 123: 122-158</ref> Nevertheless, it is listed as Least Concern on France's Red Data Book. The European polecat is rare in numerous regions or [[département]]s. In the [[Rhone]]-[[Alps]] region, its population has undergone a sizeable decline since the 1990s, largely as a consequence of poisoning campaigns against [[muskrat]]s. A 1999 study on the decline of polecats in this region indicated the species has little chance of surviving there. Elsewhere, it is considered either rare or sporadic in 22 districts and absent or extirpated in 22 others. In [[Drôme]], for example, polecat populations have been decreasing since 1975, and have disappeared in 27 communes in [[Isère]]. Its numbers are declining in [[Morvan]] and [[Ariège (department)|Ariège]], and is thinly distributed in [[Brittany]]. Though present in [[Aquitaine]], its numbers have been dropping since the 1950s, and is very rare in the mountain regions. In [[Normandy]], the speed of the polecat's decline has somewhat decreased. In the alpine départements, its range is limited by altitude, as the species relies on more Mediterranean climates to thrive. It is, however, especially abundant in the irrigated [[Crau]], but is absent on the eastern part of the area, apparently being restricted by the valleys of the [[Durance]] and Rhone Rivers. The largest populations occur in [[Northern France]]: [[Pas de Calais]], Central France ; [[Alsace]], [[Lorraine (region)|Lorraine]] and the areas of the [[Loire]] with the [[Vendée]], which holds the largest record of polecat observations. It is common in all the départements of [[Champagne-Ardenne]].<ref name="putois">{{fr icon}}Soubelet, A. Savoure (2011) [http://www.mnhn.fr/spn/docs/rapports/SPN%202011%20-%201%20-%20Note%20de%20synthese.%20Situation%20actuelle%20de%20la%20Belette%20la%20Martre%20et%20du%20Putois%20en%20France.%20Proposition%20dune%20methode%20de%20suivi.pdf ''Situation actuelle de la Martre'' (Martes martes), ''la Belette'' (Mustela nivalis) ''et du Putois'' (Mustela putorius) ''en France: Proposition d’une méthode de suivi'']. Service du Patrimoine Naturel, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle</ref> |
The European polecat is present in all of France's territories, excepting [[Corsica]], and has been in a state of decline for several decades.<ref>LODÉ T. 2006. Can low densities of carnivores result in genetic depletion ? An investigation within European polecat populations. Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetic 123: 122-158</ref> Nevertheless, it is listed as Least Concern on France's Red Data Book. The European polecat is rare in numerous regions or [[département]]s. In the [[Rhone]]-[[Alps]] region, its population has undergone a sizeable decline since the 1990s, largely as a consequence of poisoning campaigns against [[muskrat]]s. A 1999 study on the decline of polecats in this region indicated the species has little chance of surviving there. Elsewhere, it is considered either rare or sporadic in 22 districts and absent or extirpated in 22 others. In [[Drôme]], for example, polecat populations have been decreasing since 1975, and have disappeared in 27 communes in [[Isère]]. Its numbers are declining in [[Morvan]] and [[Ariège (department)|Ariège]], and is thinly distributed in [[Brittany]]. Though present in [[Aquitaine]], its numbers have been dropping since the 1950s, and is very rare in the mountain regions. In [[Normandy]], the speed of the polecat's decline has somewhat decreased. In the alpine départements, its range is limited by altitude, as the species relies on more Mediterranean climates to thrive. It is, however, especially abundant in the irrigated [[Crau]], but is absent on the eastern part of the area, apparently being restricted by the valleys of the [[Durance]] and Rhone Rivers. The largest populations occur in [[Northern France]]: [[Pas de Calais]], Central France ; [[Alsace]], [[Lorraine (region)|Lorraine]] and the areas of the [[Loire]] with the [[Vendée]], which holds the largest record of polecat observations. It is common in all the départements of [[Champagne-Ardenne]].<ref name="putois">{{fr icon}}Soubelet, A. Savoure (2011) [http://www.mnhn.fr/spn/docs/rapports/SPN%202011%20-%201%20-%20Note%20de%20synthese.%20Situation%20actuelle%20de%20la%20Belette%20la%20Martre%20et%20du%20Putois%20en%20France.%20Proposition%20dune%20methode%20de%20suivi.pdf ''Situation actuelle de la Martre'' (Martes martes), ''la Belette'' (Mustela nivalis) ''et du Putois'' (Mustela putorius) ''en France: Proposition d’une méthode de suivi''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319203932/http://www.mnhn.fr/spn/docs/rapports/SPN%202011%20-%201%20-%20Note%20de%20synthese.%20Situation%20actuelle%20de%20la%20Belette%20la%20Martre%20et%20du%20Putois%20en%20France.%20Proposition%20dune%20methode%20de%20suivi.pdf |date=2012-03-19 }}. Service du Patrimoine Naturel, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle</ref> |
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===Former Soviet Union=== |
===Former Soviet Union=== |
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===In culture=== |
===In culture=== |
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In the British Isles, the polecat historically has had a negative reputation. References to the polecat in early [[English literature]] are often vilifying, usually being synonymous with [[prostitute]]s and generally immoral people, as is the case in [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]'': "Out of my door, you witch, you hag, you baggage, you polecat, you runyon!" In some rural areas, the belief persists that the polecat chews off the ears of sleeping [[sheep]] and can paralyse or kill men by jumping on them from behind and biting their necks.<ref name="bidder"/> However, in some regions, it was widely believed among farmers that allowing a polecat to nest in a chicken coop would ensure the animal would not kill the poultry out of gratitude, and instead kill vermin. Cases in which polecats did kill poultry were attributed to animals which were guests at other farms.<ref name="wood"/> In Wales, polecats were widely believed to migrate in large numbers every spring to the great [[peat bog]] of [[Tregaron]] to feed on the breeding frogs there. This was later proven to be incorrect, as the climate in Tregaron is too wet for the European polecat, and it does not hold large frog populations.<ref name="perry"/> Compared to other British carnivores, such as [[European otter|otters]] and [[European badger|badgers]], the polecat has received little exposure in popular media. A study conducted on rural school children showed only 3.8% of the surveyed children could identify polecats in photographs, whereas 83.7% correctly identified otters.<ref name="bidder">Bidder, Owen (2009), [http://www.nature2010.org.uk/Inspired%20by%20Nature%202.pdf ''The European Polecat: Unsung Species''], [[Natur Cymru]], Summer/Haf 09</ref> |
In the British Isles, the polecat historically has had a negative reputation. References to the polecat in early [[English literature]] are often vilifying, usually being synonymous with [[prostitute]]s and generally immoral people, as is the case in [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]'': "Out of my door, you witch, you hag, you baggage, you polecat, you runyon!" In some rural areas, the belief persists that the polecat chews off the ears of sleeping [[sheep]] and can paralyse or kill men by jumping on them from behind and biting their necks.<ref name="bidder"/> However, in some regions, it was widely believed among farmers that allowing a polecat to nest in a chicken coop would ensure the animal would not kill the poultry out of gratitude, and instead kill vermin. Cases in which polecats did kill poultry were attributed to animals which were guests at other farms.<ref name="wood"/> In Wales, polecats were widely believed to migrate in large numbers every spring to the great [[peat bog]] of [[Tregaron]] to feed on the breeding frogs there. This was later proven to be incorrect, as the climate in Tregaron is too wet for the European polecat, and it does not hold large frog populations.<ref name="perry"/> Compared to other British carnivores, such as [[European otter|otters]] and [[European badger|badgers]], the polecat has received little exposure in popular media. A study conducted on rural school children showed only 3.8% of the surveyed children could identify polecats in photographs, whereas 83.7% correctly identified otters.<ref name="bidder">Bidder, Owen (2009), [http://www.nature2010.org.uk/Inspired%20by%20Nature%202.pdf ''The European Polecat: Unsung Species''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119092458/http://www.nature2010.org.uk/Inspired%20by%20Nature%202.pdf |date=2011-11-19 }}, [[Natur Cymru]], Summer/Haf 09</ref> |
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A caged polecat appears as a key character of [[Saki]]'s short story "[[Sredni Vashtar]]". |
A caged polecat appears as a key character of [[Saki]]'s short story "[[Sredni Vashtar]]". |
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* {{wikispecies-inline|Mustela putorius}} |
* {{wikispecies-inline|Mustela putorius}} |
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* [http://evolutionaryecology.fr.gd/The-polecat-project.htm The Polecat Project] |
* [http://evolutionaryecology.fr.gd/The-polecat-project.htm The Polecat Project] |
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* [ |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080618010743/http://waarneming.nl/soort.php?id=381&wno_datum_van=&wno_datum_tm=&tab=info Pictures, sightings and distribution maps of European polecats in the Netherlands] |
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* [http://www.arkive.org/european-polecat/mustela-putorius/ European polecat (Mustela putorius)] - ARKive.org |
* [http://www.arkive.org/european-polecat/mustela-putorius/ European polecat (Mustela putorius)] - ARKive.org |
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Revision as of 15:58, 9 December 2017
European polecat Temporal range:
Middle Pleistocene – Recent | |
---|---|
Welsh polecat (M. p. anglia) at the British Wildlife Centre, Newchapel, Surrey | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Carnivora |
Family: | Mustelidae |
Genus: | Mustela |
Species: | M. putorius
|
Binomial name | |
Mustela putorius | |
Geographic range |
The European polecat (Mustela putorius) — also known as the black or forest polecat, or fitch (as well as some other names) — is a species of
It is much less territorial than other mustelids, with animals of the same sex frequently sharing home ranges.[6] Like other mustelids, the European polecat is polygamous, though pregnancy occurs directly after mating, with no induced ovulation.[7] It usually gives birth in early summer to litters consisting of five to 10 kits, which become independent at the age of two to three months. The European polecat feeds on small rodents, birds, amphibians and reptiles.[8] It occasionally cripples its prey by piercing its brain with its teeth and stores it, still living, in its burrow for future consumption.[7][9]
The European polecat originated in
The European polecat is the sole ancestor of the
Etymology and naming
The word "polecat" first appeared after the
A 2002 article in
Local and indigenous names
Dialectal English names
Probably no other animal on the British list has had as many colloquial names as the polecat. In southern England it was generally referred to as 'fitchou' whereas in the north it was 'foumat or foumard... However there were a host of others including endless spelling variations: philbert, fulmer, fishock, filibart, poulcat, poll cat, etc. Charles Oldham identified at least 20 different versions of the name in the Hertfordshire/Bedfordshire area alone.
— Roger Lovegrove (2007)[19]
Linguistic group or area | Dialectal name |
---|---|
Anglo-Manx |
Foul-cat[20] |
Craven/Leeds/South Lancashire | Pow-cat[21][22][23] |
Durham | Foomart[24] |
Herefordshire | Fitchuck[25] |
Lancashire |
Foomurt[26] |
Scots | Thummurt[27] Thoomurt[27] |
Yorkshire | Foomerd[28] |
Latin name
As well as the several indigenous names referring to smell (see above), the scientific name Mustela putorius is also derived from this species' foul smell. The Latin putorius translates to stench or stink and is the origin of the English word putrid.
Evolution
The earliest true polecat was Mustela stromeri, which appeared during the late
Domestication
Morphological, cytological and molecular studies confirm the European polecat is the sole ancestor of the ferret, thus disproving any connection with the steppe polecat, which was once thought to have contributed to the ferret's creation.[12] Ferrets were first mentioned by Aristophanes in 450 BC and by Aristotle in 350 BC. Greek and Roman writers in the first century AD were the first to attest on the ferret's use in bolting rabbits from their burrows. The first accurate descriptions of ferrets come from Strabo during 200 AD, when ferrets were released onto the Balearic Islands to control rabbit populations. As the European rabbit is native to the Iberian Peninsula and northwest Africa, the European polecat likely was first domesticated in these regions.[34]
The ferret and European polecat are similar in both size and portions, to the point that dark-coloured ferrets are almost indistinguishable from their wild cousins, though the ferret's skull has a smaller cranial volume, and has a narrower postorbital constriction.[12] Compared to the European polecat, the ferret has a much smaller brain, though this comparison has not been made with Mediterranean polecats, from which ferrets likely derive.[35] The theory of a Mediterranean origin is further strengthened because the ferret is less tolerant of cold than northern polecat subspecies.[36] The ferret is also more fertile than the polecat, producing two or more litters annually, as opposed to just one.[37][38] Unlike other subspecies, which are largely solitary, the ferret will readily live in social groups.[39] The ferret is also slower in all its movements than the polecat, and hardly ever makes any use of its anal scent glands.[40] Overall, the ferret represents a neotenous form of polecat.[41]
Subspecies
As of 2005[update],[42] seven subspecies are recognised.
Subspecies | Trinomial authority | Description | Range | Synonyms |
---|---|---|---|---|
Common polecat M. p. putorius ( Nominate subspecies )
|
Linnaeus, 1758 | Larger than mosquensis, with darker, fluffier and more lustrous fur[43] | Western European Russia, western Belarus, western Ukraine, central and western Europe | flavicans (de Sélys Longchamps, 1839) foetens (Thunberge, 1789) |
Welsh polecat M. p. anglia |
Pocock, 1936 | England and Wales | ||
Mediterranean polecat M. p. aureola |
Barrett-Hamilton, 1904 | A small subspecies with yellowish underfur,[44] it may be the ancestral subspecies from which the ferret is derived, based on the characteristics of the teeth.[45] | Southern and western portions of the Iberian Peninsula | |
†Scottish polecat M. p. caledoniae |
Tetley, 1939 | Scotland | ||
Domestic ferret M. p. furo |
Linnaeus, 1758 | A domesticated form, its skull is generally typical in conformation to the nominate subspecies, though with features in common with the steppe polecat.[30] Typically, the dark facial fur does not extend to the nose, while the pale cheek patches are very extensive and contrast poorly with the dark mask. One or more paws may be white, with white guard hairs often being well distributed over the body, particularly on the hind quarters.[46] | albus (Bechstein, 1801) furoputorius (Link, 1795) | |
Middle Russian polecat M. p. mosquensis |
Heptner, 1966 | A small subspecies, with relatively light, slightly fluffy fur with little lustre[43] | European Russia | orientalis (Brauner, 1929) orientalis (Polushina, 1955) |
Carpathian polecat M. p. rothschildi |
Pocock, 1932 | A very lightly coloured subspecies, its fur closely approaches that of the steppe polecat.[47] | Dobruja, Romania |
Physical description
Build
The appearance of the European polecat is typical of members of the
The dimensions of the European polecat vary greatly. The species does not conform to Bergmann's rule, with the pattern of size variation seeming to follow a trend of size increase along an east-west axis.[50] Males measure 350–460 mm in body length and females are 290–394 mm. The tail measures 115–167 mm in males and 84–150 mm in females. Adult males in middle Europe weigh 1,000-1,500 grams and females 650-815 grams. Gigantism is known among polecats, but specimens exhibiting this are likely the products of polecat-mink hybridisation.[51]
Fur
The winter fur of the European polecat is brownish black or blackish brown, the intensity of which is determined by the colour of the long guard hairs. On the back and flanks, the dark tone is brightened by bright whitish-yellowish, sometimes yellowish-greyish underfur which shows through. The lightly coloured underfur is not equally visible on different parts of the body. On the back and hindquarters, the underfur is almost completely covered by the dark guard hairs. On the flanks, though, the lightening is well defined, and contrasts sharply with the general tone of the back. The throat, lower neck, chest and abdomen are black or blackish brown. The limbs are pure black or black with brown tints, while the tail is black or blackish brown, completely lacking light underfur. The area around and between the eyes is black-brown, with a longitudinal stripe of similar colour along the top of the nose. The ears are dark brown and edged with white. The summer fur is short, sparse and coarse. It is greyer, duller and lacking in the lustre of the winter fur. The underfur is more weakly developed in the summer fur, and has a brownish-grey or rusty-grey colour.[2] The polecat is a good swimmer,[52] but its fur is not as well insulated against cold water as the American mink's; while a mink will take 118 minutes to cool in a water temperature of 8 °C, the polecat cools down much faster at 26–28 minutes.[53]
Polecats were found in two major phenotypes a typic one and a dark fur one with no black mask.
Behaviour
Social and territorial behaviours
Unlike the steppe polecat, the European polecat has a much more settled way of life, with definite home ranges.[55] The characteristics of polecat home ranges vary according to season, habitat, sex and social status.[56] Breeding females settle in discrete areas, whereas breeding males and dispersing juveniles have more fluid ranges, being more mobile.[57] Males typically have larger territories than females. Each polecat uses several den sites distributed throughout its territory.[6] Occasionally, abandoned European badger or red fox burrows are used.[55] Rabbit warrens are often areas of intense polecat activity. In winter, the polecat may use farm buildings or haystacks as daytime resting sites. The polecat is not as territorial as other small mustelids, having been known to share territories with other members of the same sex. Evidence of polecats marking their territories is sparse.[6] Like other mustelids, the polecat is usually a silent animal, though it will growl fiercely when angered, and squeak when distressed. It also emits a low, mewling cry to its mate or offspring.[9]
Reproduction and development
The European polecat is a seasonal breeder, with no courtship rituals. During the
Ecology
Diet
The European polecat's diet consists of
Enemies and competitors
The polecat may be preyed upon by
Hybridisation
... ecologically, polecat-European mink hybrids are indeed something between the European mink and polecat. Hybrids acted both as a semiaquatic predator like the European mink, and as a more terrestrial predator, like the polecat. They changed feeding habits between being a generalist predator basing its diet on amphibians, small rodents and birds (like the polecat) to being a frog eater similar to the European mink. Even in daily activity hybrids were intermediate between the two hybridized species.
— Vadim E. Sidorovich, of the IUCN/SSC Mustelid, Viverrid & Procyonid Specialist Group[71]
In some parts of the British Isles, the abandoning of domestic
Polecats are able to hybridise with the rare
The European polecat can also hybridise with the Asian
Range, history and conservation
The European polecat is widespread in the western
The British Isles
There are ... some extreme examples, but the fact remains that throughout England and Wales polecats were consistently persecuted at a greater intensity than any other species of mustelid. Did this level of persecution have an effect on overall numbers or did it purely satisfy local vengeance? ... The polecat may be the best example of a species for which the level of killing really did make a difference to the population. The developing sporting estates then administered the coup de grâce.
— Roger Lovegrove (2007)[78]
In Britain, the European polecat was regarded as a serious poultry predator prior to the introduction of
In modern times, the European polecat is found throughout most of rural Wales and in England from Cheshire south to Somerset, and east to Leicestershire and Northamptonshire, although it had become extinct in most of England and survived only in Wales, where the population has spread over the border. The species was reintroduced into the Cumberland and Westmorland, Argyll and on Speyside during the 1970s and 1980s, though the current status of these populations is unknown. Its modern distribution is unclear to a certain extent because of the presence of polecat-ferret hybrids. Aside from the reintroductions, factors aiding the recovery of British polecat populations include an increase in rabbit populations and a lessening of persecution by gamekeepers. Its population has been considered viable since the mid-1990s. The European polecat is afforded both national and European protection; it is listed on Schedule 6 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and Regulation 41 of the Conservation (Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations 1994 and is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive.[81] A survey carried out by the Vincent Wildlife Trust in 2015 found that the polecat had spread into areas (such as East Anglia and South Yorkshire) where they had not been seen for 100 years. Naturalist Chris Packham termed the spread "...one of the great natural recoveries."[82]
France
The European polecat is present in all of France's territories, excepting
Former Soviet Union
The western border of the European polecat's range in the former Soviet Union begins from the mouth of the
Prior to the First World War, the Russian Empire produced more than 50% of global polecat skins. The harvesting of polecats in Russia increased substantially after the October Revolution, which coincided with Western Europe's decline in polecat numbers. The Russian population of polecats decreased somewhat after the Second World War, and their hunting was subsequently discouraged, as polecats were acknowledged to limit harmful rodent populations.[86]
Diseases and parasites
The European polecat may suffer from
Relationships with humans
Hunting and fur use
The polecat has earned for itself a most unenviable fame, having been long celebrated as one of the most noxious pests to which the farmyard is liable. Slightly smaller than the marten, and not quite so powerful, it is found to be a more deadly enemy to rabbits, game and poultry, than any other animal its size.
European polecat hunting was once a favourite sport of the
The European polecat is a valuable fur bearer, whose pelt (fitch) is more valuable than the steppe polecat's.
Tameability
Unlike the stoat and least weasel, the European polecat is easy to breed in captivity.[91] According to Aubyn Trevor-Battye, the European polecat is difficult to tame, but is superior to its domesticated form, the ferret, in bolting rats from their holes due to its greater agility. It is prone to attempting escape once finished bolting rats, but can be easily outrun.[94] Polecat kits can be successfully raised and suckled by mother cats.[58] According to Owen's Welsh Dictionary, the Gwythelians (early Irish settlers in northern Wales) kept polecats as pets.[95] Attempts to tame the European polecat are generally hampered by the adult's nervous and unsociable disposition. First generation hybrids between polecats and ferrets, conceived to improve the latter's bloodlines, produce animals with personalities similar to their wild parents.[41]
In culture
In the British Isles, the polecat historically has had a negative reputation. References to the polecat in early
A caged polecat appears as a key character of Saki's short story "Sredni Vashtar".
Gallery
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Buffon's illustration of a polecat in volume 4 of Natural history, general and particular
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Skulls of a black-footed ferret (1) and European polecat (2), as illustrated in Merriam's Synopsis of the Weasels of North America
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Comparative illustration of a European polecat, least weasel and stoat, as illustrated in Carnegie's Practical Game-preserving
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Welsh polecat profile
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A light-coloured morph
References
Notes
- ^ a b c Template:IUCN2008 Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern
- ^ a b c Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1109–1111
- ^ a b c Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 1108
- ^ a b Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1112–1113
- ^ a b Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 1130
- ^ a b c d Harris & Yalden 2008, pp. 480–481
- ^ a b c d e Harris & Yalden 2008, pp. 482–483
- ^ a b Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1127–1129
- ^ a b Johnston 1903, p. 155
- ^ a b c Davison, A., et al. (1999) Hybridization and the phylogenetic relationship between polecats and domestic ferrets in Britain Archived 2011-07-27 at the Wayback Machine, Biological Conservation 87 :155-161
- ^ a b c d "Khonorik: Hybrids between Mustelidae". Russian Ferret Society. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
- ^ a b c d Harris & Yalden 2008, pp. 485–487
- ^ Natur Cymru, Summer/Haf 09
- ^ Johnston 1903, p. 154
- ^ Powell, R.A. (1981). "Mammalian Species: Martes pennanti" (PDF). The American Society of Mammalogists: 156:1–6.
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(help) - ^ "DOC's work with ferrets", New Zealand Department of Conservation. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
- ^ "Ferrets", "Wild about New Zealand". Retrieved 20 April 2014.
- ^ Brown, Duncan (2002) The foulmart: what’s in a name? Archived 2011-09-03 at the Wayback Machine Mammal Rev., Volume 32, No. 2, 145–149
- ^ a b Lovegrove 2007, p. 198
- ^ Moore, A. W. (1924). A vocabulary of the Anglo-Manx dialect. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Carr, William (1828). The dialect of Craven: in the West-Riding of the county of York. p. 56. Printed for W. Crofts.
- ^ Robinson, C. Clough (1862). The dialect of Leeds and its neighbourhood: illustrated by conversations and tales of common life, etc. To which are added a copious glossary; notices of the various antiquities, manners, and customs, and general folk-lore of the district. p. 388. J.R. Smith.
- ^ Bobbin, Tim (1850). The dialect of South Lancashire: or, Tim Bobbin's Tummus and Meary : with his rhymes and an enlarged glossary of words and phrases, chiefly used by the rural population of the manufacturing districts of South Lancashire. p. 185. J.R. Smith.
- ^ Dinsdale, Frederick (1849). A glossary of provincial words used in Teesdale in the County of Durham. p. 48. J. R. Smith.
- ^ Lewis, George Cornewall, Sir (1839). A glossary of provincial words used in Herefordshire and some of the adjoining counties. p. 41. J. Murray.
- ^ Cobham, Alan (n.d.) Dialect – A Glossary of Lancashire Words as Spoken in Mawdesley. Mawdesley Village Web Site. [online]. http://www.mawdesley-village.org.uk/dialect.php
- ^ a b Wilson, James (1923). The dialect of Robert Burns as spoken in central Ayrshire. p. 190. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Smith, J. R. (1839). The Yorkshire Dialect: Exemplified in Various Dialogues, Tales & Songs, Applicable to the County. To which is Added, a Glossary of Such Words as are Likely Not to be Understood by Those Unacquainted with the Dialect. p. 24. London: John Russell Smith.
- ^ Kurtén 1968, pp. 98–100
- ^ a b Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1115–1117
- ISBN 0-231-03733-3
- ^ Sato, J., T. Hosada, W. Mieczyslaw, K. Tsuchiya, Y. Yamamoto, H. Suzuki. 2003. Phylogenetic relationships and divergence times among mustelids (Mammalia: Carnivora) based on nucleotide sequences of the nuclear interphotoreceptor retinoid binding protein and mitochondrial cytochrome b genes Archived 2011-10-03 at the Wayback Machine. Zoologial Science, 20: 243-264.
- ^ a b Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1086–1088
- ^ Lewington 2000, pp. 3–5
- ^ Hemmer 1990, p. 108
- ISBN 0-521-34697-5.
- ^ Bednarz M. Observations on reproduction in polecat and ferret hybrids (abstract). Anim Breed 1962;30:239.
- ^ Bednarz M. Preliminary observations on the growth and development of polecat and ferret hybrids (abstract). Anim Breed 1962;30:239
- ^ Brown, Susan, A. "Inherited behavior traits of the domesticated ferret". weaselwords.com. Retrieved 29 January 2010.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Hemmer 1990, p. 86
- ^ a b Lewington 2000, pp. 93
- OCLC 62265494.
- ^ a b Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1125–1126
- ^ Miller 1912, p. 425
- ^ Hemmer 1990, pp. 49–50
- ISBN 0946081476
- ^ Pocock, R. I. The Polecats of the Genera Putorius and Vormela in the British Museum, Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, Volume 106, Issue 3, pages 691–724, September 1936
- ^ a b Miller 1912, p. 419
- ^ Harris & Yalden 2008, p. 477
- ^ De Marinis, Anna M. (1995) Craniometric variability of polecat Mustela putorius L. 1758 from North-Central Italy., Hystrix, (n.s.) 7 (1-2) (1995): 57-68
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1114–1115
- ^ LODÉ T. 1999 - Comparative measurements of terrestrial and aquatic locomotion in Mustela lutreola and M. putorius. Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde (Mammal Biol) 64 : 110-115.
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 1411
- ^ LODÉ T. 2001. Genetic divergence without spatial isolation in polecat Mustela putorius populations. Journal of Evolutionary Biology.14 : 228-236
- ^ a b Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 1129
- ^ LODE T. 2011. Habitat selection and mating success in a Mustelid. International J of Zoology Volume 2011, Article ID 159462
- ^ LODÉ T. 2001. Mating system and genetic variance in a polygynous mustelid, the European polecat. Genes and Genetic systems 76 : 221-227
- ^ a b c d Brehm 1895, p. 158
- ^ LODÉ T., HOLVECK M.J., LESBARRERES, D & PAGANO A. 2004. Sex-biased predation by polecats influences the mating system of frogs. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, (suppl.), Biology Letters : 271 (S6): S399-S401
- ^ LODÉ T. 1995 - Activity pattern of polecats Mustela putorius L. in relation to food habits and prey activity. Ethology 100 : 295-308.
- ^ Lydekker 1896, pp. 115
- ^ Zoologist: a monthly journal of natural history, Volume 4 (1846)
- ^ LODÉ T. 1996 - Predation of European polecat upon frog and toad populations at breeding sites in western France. Ethology, Ecology, Evolution 8 : 115-124.
- ^ a b c Maxwell, William Hamilton (1833) The field book: or, Sports and pastimes of the United kingdom; comp. from the best authorities, ancient and modern, E. Wilson
- ISBN 90-04-08876-8
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1104–1105
- ^ Sidorovich, V. E., MacDonald, D. W., Kruuk, H. & Krasko, A., 2000. Behavioural interactions between the naturalized American mink Mustela vison and the native riparian mustelids, NE Belarus, with implications for population changes Archived 2012-03-16 at the Wayback Machine. Small Carnivore Conservation, 22: 1–5.
- ^ Lanszki, J.; Heltai, M. Diet of the European polecat and the steppe polecat in Hungary Archived 2011-08-31 at the Wayback Machine, 2007, Mammalian Biology 72: 49-53
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 902
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 992
- ^ a b c Sidorovich, V. (2001) Finding on the ecology of hybrids between the European mink Mustela lutreola and polecat M. putorius at the Lovat upper reaches, NE Belarus Archived 2012-03-16 at the Wayback Machine Small Carnivore Conservation 24: 1-5
- ^ Polecat FAQs Archived 2011-07-27 at the Wayback Machine © The Vincent Wildlife Trust 2010
- ^ Poole TB (1972) Some behavioral differences between European polecat, Mustela putorius, ferret, M furo, and their hybrids. J. Zool 166:25–35
- ISBN 0-9533648-8-7
- ^ LODÉ T., GUIRAL G. & PELTIER D. 2005. European mink-polecat hybridization events: hazards from natural process ? Journal of Heredity 96 (2): 1-8
- ^ a b Tumanov, Igor L. & Abramov, Alexei V. (2002) A study of the hybrids between the European Mink Mustela lutreola and the Polecat M. putorius Archived 2011-07-28 at the Wayback Machine Small Carnivore Conservation 27: 29-31
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1144–1145
- ^ Lovegrove 2007, p. 200
- ^ Ritchie 1920, p. 162
- ^ Lovegrove 2007, p. 275=276
- ^ Joint Nature Conservation Committee. 2007. Second Report by the UK under Article 17 on the implementation of the Habitats, Directive from January 2001 to December 2006. Peterborough: JNCC. Available from: http://www.jncc.gov.uk/article17
- ^ "Conservationists: Polecats 'spreading across Britain'". BBC. 28 January 2016. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
- ^ LODÉ T. 2006. Can low densities of carnivores result in genetic depletion ? An investigation within European polecat populations. Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetic 123: 122-158
- ^ Template:Fr iconSoubelet, A. Savoure (2011) Situation actuelle de la Martre (Martes martes), la Belette (Mustela nivalis) et du Putois (Mustela putorius) en France: Proposition d’une méthode de suivi Archived 2012-03-19 at the Wayback Machine. Service du Patrimoine Naturel, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1117–1122
- ^ a b c Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1133–1134
- ^ a b c Harris & Yalden 2008, p. 484
- ^ a b Wood, Rev. J. G. (1870) Wood's Animal Kingdom
- ^ Lydekker 1896, pp. 114
- ^ ISBN 0-85664-306-8
- ^ ISBN 0-9533648-7-9
- ^ Bachrach 1953, pp. 348–352
- ISBN 3-540-61357-9
- ^ Lydekker 1896, pp. 116
- ^ Sullivan, Jeremiah (1857) Cumberland & Westmorland, ancient & modern: the people, dialect, superstitions and customs, Whittaker and co.
Bibliography
- Bachrach, Max (1953). "Fur: a practical treatise" (3rd ed.). New York : Prentice-Hall.
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(help) - Batten, Harry Mortimer (1920). "Habits and characters of British wild animals". London [etc.] W. & R. Chambers, Limited.
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(help) - Brehm, Alfred Edmund (1895). "Brehm's Life of Animals". Chicago: A. N. Marquis & Company.
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(help) - Harris, Stephen; Yalden, Derek (2008). Mammals of the British Isles (4th Revised ed.). Mammal Society. )
- Johnston, Harry Hamilton (1903), British mammals; an attempt to describe and illustrate the mammalian fauna of the British islands from the commencement of the Pleistocene period down to the present day, London, Hutchinson
- Hemmer, Helmut (1990). Domestication: the decline of environmental appreciation. Cambridge University Press. )
- Heptner, V. G.; Sludskii, A. A. (2002). Mammals of the Soviet Union. Vol. II, part 1b, Carnivores (Mustelidae and Procyonidae). Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation. )
- Kurtén, Björn (1968). "Pleistocene mammals of Europe". Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
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(help) - Lewington, John (2000), Ferret husbandry, medicine, and surgery, Elsevier Health Sciences, ISBN 0-7506-4251-3
- Lovegrove, Roger (2007), Silent fields: the long decline of a nation's wildlife, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-852071-9
- Lydekker, Richard (1896), The hand-book to the British Mammalia, London, Edward Lloyd
- Miller, Gerrit Smith (1912), Catalogue of the mammals of Western Europe (Europe exclusive of Russia) in the collection of the British museum, London : printed by order of the Trustees
- Ritchie, James (1920), The influence of man on animal life in Scotland; study in faunal evolution, Cambridge : University press
External links
- Media related to Mustela putorius at Wikimedia Commons
- Data related to Mustela putorius at Wikispecies
- The Polecat Project
- Pictures, sightings and distribution maps of European polecats in the Netherlands
- European polecat (Mustela putorius) - ARKive.org