Achaemenid architecture

Achaemenid architecture

Top: The ruins of Persepolis in present-day Iran, approximately 2500 years old; Centre: Frieze of archers, circa 510 BC, from the Palace of Darius in Susa, now in the Louvre; Bottom: A well-preserved Persian column capital from Persepolis (Iran)

Achaemenid architecture includes all architectural achievements of the

Achaemenid architectural heritage, beginning with the expansion of the empire around 550 B.C., was a period of artistic growth that left an extraordinary architectural legacy ranging from Cyrus the Great's solemn tomb in Pasargadae to the splendid structures of the opulent city of Persepolis.^[6] With the advent of the second Persian Empire, the Sassanid dynasty (224–624), revived Achaemenid tradition by construction of temples dedicated to fire, and monumental palaces.^[6]

Perhaps the most striking extant structures to date are the ruins of Persepolis, a once opulent city established by the Achaemenid king, Darius the Great for governmental and ceremonial functions, and also acting as one of the empire's four capitals. Persepolis would take 100 years to complete and would finally be ransacked and burnt by the troops of Alexander the Great in 330 B.C.^[7] Similar architectural infrastructures were also erected at Susa and Ecbatana by Darius the Great, serving similar functions as Persepolis, such as reception of foreign dignitaries and delegates, performance of imperial ceremonies and duties, and also housing the kings.

After his death, Cyrus the Great's remains were interred in his capital city of Pasargadae, where today his limestone tomb (built around 540–530^[9]) still exists. The translated ancient accounts give a vivid description of the tomb both geometrically and aesthetically; "With its massive stonework and smooth surfaces relieved by the minimum of decorative detail, the tomb creates an impression of dignity, simplicity, and strength. In design it combines two distinct elements: a high plinth composed of six receding tiers and a modest, gabled tomb chamber. In its original state the tomb probably measured c. 11,1 o m from the once hidden foundation level to the apex of the roof. Of the six tiers of the plinth, the lowest has an average height of 1,65 m, the second and third have a height of 1,05 m, and the last three each have a uniform height of 57,5 cm. The base of the plinth measures c. 13,35×12,30 m, while the base of the tomb chamber measures c. 6,40 × 5,35 m. As for the cella's other measurements, the narrow doorway, in its present condition without its original doorsills, is 1,39 m high and 78 cm wide; the passage is 1,20 long; and the chamber is 3,17 m in length with a uniform width and height of 2,11 m. The walls of the chamber are up to 1,50 m thick. Above the chamber, a hollow compartment in the roof, almost divided in two for structural reasons, measures 4,75 m in length and 85 cm in height. The capstone of the roof is missing."^[10]

Arrian's direct testimony indicates that Cyrus the Great was indeed buried in the chamber inside the edifice, as he describes Alexander seeing it during his visit to Pasargadae, but it is also a possibility that the body of Cyrus the Great had been interred below the structure, and that the tomb seen on the top is in fact a cenotaph or a false tomb.

There was originally a golden coffin inside the mausoleum, resting on a table with golden supports, inside of which the body of Cyrus the Great was interred. Upon his resting place, was a covering of tapestry and drapes made from the best available Babylonian materials, using fine Median workmanship; below his bed was a fine red carpet, covering the narrow rectangular base of his tomb.^[11]

Translated Greek accounts describe the tomb as having been placed in the fertile Pasargadae gardens, surrounded by trees and ornamental shrubs, with a group of Achaemenian protectors (the "Magi"), stationed nearby to protect the edifice from theft or damage.^[12][13]

The magi were a group of on-site Zoroastrian observers, located in their separate but attached structure possibly a caravanserai, paid and cared for by the Achaemenid state (by some accounts they received a salary of daily bread and flour, and one sheep payment a day^[14]). The magi were placed in charge of maintenance and also prevention of theft. Years later, in the ensuing chaos created by Alexander the Great's invasion of Persia and loss of a centralized authority directing and caring for the Magi, Cyrus the Great's tomb was broken into and most of its luxuries were looted. When Alexander reached the tomb, he was horrified by the manner in which the tomb was treated, and questioned the Magi and put them to court.^[12] On some accounts, Alexander's decision to put the Magi on trial was more about his attempt to undermine their influence and his show of power in his newly conquered empire, than a concern for Cyrus's tomb.^[15] Regardless, Alexander the Great ordered Aristobulus of Cassandreia to improve the tomb's condition and restore its interior.^[12]

The tomb was originally ornamented with an inscription that, according to Strabo (and other ancient sources), stated:^[16]

O man! I am Cyrus the Great, who gave the Persians an empire and was the king of Asia. Grudge me not therefore this monument.

The edifice has survived the test of time for some 2,500 years. After the

• 
  Shah of Iran's 2,500 years

  celebrations
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  An animated picture of the mausoleum
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  Tomb of Cyrus under repair

Perhaps one of the most memorable remaining architectural and artistic works is the bas-relief of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae. This is a bas-relief cut upon a stone slab depicting a figure or a guardian man, most likely a resemblance of Cyrus himself, possessing four wings shown in an

David Stronach has suggested that there were originally four such figures, set against doorways to the Palace of Cyrus in Pasargadae.^[19] That this bas-relief has such an eclectic styling with elements of Egyptian, Elamite, and Assyrian, reflects "..'the oecumenical attitude of the Achaemenian kings, who from the time of Cyrus, onward adopted a liberal policy of tolerance and conciliation toward the various religions embraced within their empire'..."^[19] It would therefore depict the eclectic nature of Achaemenid life from policies of the kings to their choice of architecture.

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  A recreation of the details of the four winged figure in Olympic Park, Sydney. Note the details of the two-horned crown
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  Ruins of the private palace of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae where this winged figure could have served as decoration
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  An erect column found in the ruin complex of Cyrus's private palace. Unlike Apadana columns no fluting is used
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  A so-called "swallow-tail" (or "dovetail") staple. This is an early, huge example of staple used in architecture in order to fasten stones together.

Persepolis Fortifications (PF) Tablets, dating to between 509 and 494, are ancient Persian documents that describe many aspects of construction and maintenance of the Persepolis.^[21] The tablets are important because they highlight two important aspects of the Achaemenid life and the construction of Persepolis: Firstly, that the structure was created by workers, who were paid rations or wages, and secondly the structure had an intricate system of engineering involving weight bearing and architectural elements, and most notably an irrigation system composed of a system of closed pipes and open aqueducts. The following text from PF 1224, delineates both points:

32 BAN (9.7 litres) of grain...the high priest at Persepolis... received and gave (it as) bonus to post-partum Greek women at Persepolis, irrigation (workers), whose apportionment are set....^[21]

The runoff and sewer network of Persepolis are among the most complex in the ancient world. Persepolis is constructed on the foot of a mountain (Rahmat Mountain), with an elevated terrace that is partially man made and partially part of the mountain complex. As Persepolis was in essence an important cultural center often used by the beginning of the spring during the festival of Nowruz it enjoyed great precipitation and water runoffs from the molten ice and snow. The sewer network assumed great importance at this critical time as it was meant to both handle the water flow downward from higher areas as well as manage the inhabitant's sewage runoffs, and their water needs.^[22]

In order to prevent flooding, the Achaemenids used two engineering techniques to divert snowmelt and mountain runoff. The first strategy was to collect the runoff in a well with a square opening 4.2 m wide and a depth of 60 m, allowing a volume of 554 cubic meters, or 554,000 liters, (60 x 4.2 x 4.2) of runoff to be collected. The water would be diverted toward the reservoir via multiple masonry gutters strategically located around the structure. The second strategy was to divert water away from the structure should the reservoirs be filled to capacity; this system used a 180-meter-long conduit 7 m wide and 2.6 m deep located just west of the site.^[22]

The water system was far more complex than just the reservoirs and the water conduits, and involved a very sophisticated system of closed pipes and irrigation. The irrigation system was divided into five zones, two serving the north part of the structure and three the southern part. The irrigation system was designed to be harmonious with the structure. Drainage canals were built in the center of the columns, and small draining holes and conduits were included on each floor which would carry water off of the floors, the roof, and the sewage portals into an underground sewage network and away from the structure.^[22]

The five zones (I–V) all possessed a runoff capacity of 260 L/s (liters/second)--more than sufficient for handling mountain runoff, indicating that the system was also used for water supply to the inhabitants, sewage management, and even irrigation of the gardens around the structure.^[22]

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  A schematic diagram of the reservoir
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  A photo of the reservoir as it exists today
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  Irrigation zones (I, II) in north and (III, IV, V) in south^[22]

In order for such a massive structure to have functioned properly it meant that the weight of the roof, columns and indeed the terrace had to be distributed evenly. Construction at the base of the mountain offered some structural support. The ceiling material was a composite application of wood and stone decreasing its overall weight. Extensive use of stone in Persepolis, not only guaranteed its structural integrity for the duration of its use but also meant that its remains lasted longer than the mud-bricks of Susa palaces.

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  The remaining structural columns & doorways
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  Another view of the columns
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  The columns and the door frames

Scholars agree that it was Darius the Great who initiated the construction and expansion of the Persepolis project, however German archaeologist

On some accounts, Persepolis was never officially finished as its existence was cut short by Alexander the Great, who in a fit of anger, ordered the burning of the city in 330 B.C. Started originally by Darius the Great a century earlier, the structure was constantly changing, receiving upgrades from subsequent Persian monarchs, and undergoing renovation to maintain its impressive façade. After the burning of the city, Persepolis was deserted and it was relatively lost to history until the excavations of Herzfeld, Schmidt, and the Chicago team uncovered it in the 1930s. This great historical artifact is unfortunately at serious risk of "irreparable damage"[6] from neglect, the elements, and vandalism.

Persepolis was by no means the only large scale Achaemenid project, as

When you see Persepolis for the first time as I did, facing Marvdasht, you are likely to be disappointed but once inside the ruins themselves you are overwhelmed by the still-proud soaring columns, and by the quality and the fresh state of the bas-relief carvings which are certainly among the finest in the history of the world’s art. But mostly you are transfixed by the sudden realization that all this happened 24 centuries ago, and that people from every nation in the known world of the time had stood in the same place and felt the same.[23]

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  Lubke in his visit to Persepolis
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  Lubke and the bas-relief
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  Lubke and the wall relief
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  Theatrical performance by western artists in Shiraz Arts Festival

Throughout history there have been instances of neglect or vandalism in Persepolis. The most notable historical figure to vandalize this structure was

Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects?^[25]

In retrospect, it must be understood that despite his momentary lapse of judgment and his role as having been the single most significant figure to bring an end to Persepolis, Alexander is not by any means the only. Many individuals in the following centuries would damage Persepolis including thieves and vandals during the

During the colonial era, and in WWII, the structure would also suffer vandalism at the hands of the Allies. Natural causes such as earthquakes and winds have also contributed to the overall demise of the structure.[27]

The first French excavation in Susa carried out by the Dieulafoys and the looting and the destruction of Persian antiquities by the so-called archeologists had a deep impact on the site. Jane Dieulafoy writes in her diary:

Yesterday I was gazing at the huge stone cow found recently; it weighs around 12,000 kilos! It is impossible to move such an enormous mass. I couldn't control my anger. I took a hammer and started striking the stone beast. I gave it some ferocious blows. The head of the pillar burst open like ripe fruit.^{[citation needed]}

Even to date the structure is not safe from destruction and vandalism. After the Iranian revolution, a group of fundamentalists serving

The gallery below highlights only some of these unfortunate acts of vandalism mostly by foreign visitors from the late 1800s to mid-1900s. Currently the structure is at high risk of "irreparable damage."[6]

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  A graffito left during the

  Sassanid

  era by a horseman
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  A graffito left by explorer Henry Morton Stanley of New York Herald
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  English graffiti left by foreign visitors

French archaeologist, Egyptologist, and historian Charles Chipiez (1835–1901) has created some of the most advanced virtual drawings of what Persepolis would have looked like as a metropolis of the Persian Empire. The following mini-gallery depicts his virtual recreations.^[29]

The first image on the left is a view of the "Talar-i-Takht" or the 100 columns hall of Persepolis. Note on the far left portion of the image, the famous "lamassu" (or chimeric man, lion, eagle beast) greeting the visitors (look below for a picture of a lamassu). Chipiez's drawings delineate his technical prowess and attention to details.

The second picture from the left, is Chipiez's drawing of the columns, their capital ornation, and roof structure of the palace of Darius in Persepolis, also known as "Tachar." It has bull details, as well as the use of wood in construction of the roof. This explains why the palace caught fire when Alexander the Great, set it aflame.

The third picture from the left, is a more detailed, technical drawing of the "Talar-i-Takht" or the 100 column hall. Note the layering of the roof, the detailing on the edges of the roof, the window structures, and the technical detailing of the construction poles.

The last picture, on the right, is a panoramic view of the outside of the palace of Darius the Great in Persepolis. Details of the Persepolis reliefs are depicted as one can note the symbolic scenes of lions attacking bulls, accompanied by two groups of Persian soldiers protecting (symbolically in this case) the infrastructure above.

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  Hall of 100 columns (Hall of the throne, or "Talar-i-Takht")
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  Analysis of the roof, and column's capital of the "Tachar" or palace of Darius
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  An aerial reconstruction of the structure in "Talar-i-Takht" or 100 columns hall
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  Virtual construction of the entrance to palace of Darius the Great, Persepolis

Susa was an ancient city (5500 B.C.) even by the time of the Achaemenids. Susa became a part of the Achaemenid Empire in 539 B.C., and was expanded upon by Darius the Great with construction of Palace of Darius, and later development of palace of Artaxerxes II. The palace had a unique Apadana, resembling the one in Persepolis, except this hall was much larger than its Persepolis counterpart covering some 9,200 square meters.^[30] Cyrus the Great chose Susa as a site for one of his fortifications creating a wall there that was significantly taller than older walls made by the Elamites. This choice might have been to facilitate the trade from Persian Gulf northward.^[16] What remains in way of structure from this once active capital, are five archaeological mounds, today located in modern Shush, in southwestern Iran, scattered over 250 hectares.^[31]

Darius's design of his palace in Susa would resemble Persepolis structurally and aesthetically but would incorporate more of a local flair. The structure hosted a large hall of throne or Apadana similar to the

Intricate scenes depicting archers of king Darius would decorate the walls, as well as motifs of nature such as double-bulls, unicorns, fasciae curling into volutes, and palms disposed as a flower or a bell. The archers in particular depict a unique symbiosis of Persian, Ionian and Greek artistry of the time probably reflecting the origin of the artists who were originally hired by Darius the Great, and their personal reflections on the finished work.^[30] Perhaps the most striking terra-cotta relief is that of the griffin, depicting a winged creature resembling a lion with wings of an eagle (picture not shown here). The terra-cotta brick reliefs were decorated with lively dye colorations often giving them a lifelike quality.

Architecturally, the palace of Darius in Susa, was the epitome of the Persian architecture at the height of the empire's growth. Originally erected by Darius, and extensively renovated and modified by Artaxerxes II, it was meant to reflect the same opulence and prestige as Persepolis. This was Darius the Great's attempt to decorate his summer capital of Susa and to show case its glory.

For its construction, Darius brought Egyptian architects and workers.^[32] In Darius' palace, Egyptianizing cavetto cornices were introduced as a decoration over the lintels of niches, windows and doorways.^[33] Subsequently, all buildings at Persepolis were to have such cornices.^[33]

French archaeologist Marcel-Auguste Dieulafoy discovered the remnants of the palace of Darius, among the ruins of Susa producing the artifacts of this once magnificent structure now at display in the Louvre museum, France. He also wrote a series of architectural observations known as "L'Art antique de la Perse" which made a significant impression on the art community as to the intricacy of the Achaemenid architecture.^[30] Although Dieulafoy and his wife Jane, made significant contributions in way of excavation, Susa remains were noted by many observers years before and were in fact officially noted by William K. Loftus in 1852.^[31]

Susa was a wealthy city by the time Alexander the Great invaded it, and it is said that he required 10,000 camels and 20,000 donkeys to carry away the treasures.^[16] For the most part the architectural wealth of Susa lies in its palaces, and ceremonial structures most of which have been eroded away by time or wear and tear. Today the most important remnants of the Achaemenid contribution to the architecture of ancient Susa are found in remnants of the Palace of Darius the Great in the original excavation site, or hosted in foreign nations' museums as Persian artifacts. Today the archaeological remains of the structure remain exposed to the elements, wear and tear, and human activity, and it seems that remains of Susa would be forever lost, except perhaps for few selected pieces on display at the Louvre or foreign nations' museums.

Below are a few selected photos from the palace of Darius. The photo on the far left depicts the famous Archers' relief from the palace of Darius, from Susa. The second picture from the right, is a two-dimensional "lamassu" a mythical creature with wings of an eagle, head of a man, and body of a lion. The picture in the middle, is of the base of a column from the palace of Darius in Susa, inscribing in its rim, in three languages (Babylonian, Elamite, and Old Persian), that Darius, is the "great king of kings."

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  Terra-cotta frieze of the Apadana of Susa, depicting an Achaemenid soldier. Note the intricate clothing details, and lively coloration of the piece
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  Bell shaped base of a column from the palace of Darius in Susa bearing a trilingual inscription: "I, Darius, the great king of the kings"
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  A creature with a head of a man, body of a lion, and wings of an eagle, resembling a "lamassu," from the palace of Darius, Susa, Shush
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  Remnant of the Apadana at Susa built by Darius I. Only the foundations remain, but there was once a large hall of columns located on this structure.