Dialect
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Dialect (from Latin dialectus, dialectos, from the Ancient Greek word διάλεκτος, diálektos 'discourse', from διά, diá 'through' and λέγω, légō 'I speak') refers to two distinctly different types of linguistic relationships.
The more common usage of the term refers to a
The other usage, which is specific to
Features that distinguish dialects from each other can be found in
Languages are classified as dialects based on linguistic distance. The dialects of a language with a writing system will operate at different degrees of distance from the standardized written form. Some dialects of a language are not mutually intelligible in spoken form, leading to debate as to whether they are regiolects or separate languages.
Standard and nonstandard dialects
A
The distinction between the "standard" dialect and the "
Dialect as linguistic variety of a language
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The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as
A geographical/regional dialect may be termed a regiolect
Difference between dialects and languages
There is no universally accepted criterion for distinguishing two different languages from two dialects (i.e. varieties) of the same language.
Linguistic distance
An important criterion for categorizing varieties of language is linguistic distance. For a variety to be considered a dialect, the linguistic distance between the two varieties must be low. Linguistic distance between spoken or written forms of language increases as the differences between the forms are characterized.[34] For example, two languages with completely different syntactical structures would have a high linguistic distance, while a language with very few differences from another may be considered a dialect or a sibling of that language. Linguistic distance may be used to determine language families and language siblings. For example, languages with little linguistic distance, like Dutch and German, are considered siblings. Dutch and German are siblings in the West-Germanic language group. Some language siblings are closer to each other in terms of linguistic distance than to other linguistic siblings. French and Spanish, siblings in the Romance Branch of the Indo-European group, are closer to each other than they are to any of the languages of the West-Germanic group.[34] When languages are close in terms of linguistic distance, they resemble one another, hence why dialects are not considered linguistically distant to their parent language.
Mutual intelligibility
One criterion, which is often considered to be purely linguistic, is that of mutual intelligibility: two varieties are said to be dialects of the same language if being a speaker of one variety has sufficient knowledge to understand and be understood by a speaker of the other dialect; otherwise, they are said to be different languages.[35] However, this definition has often been criticized, especially in the case of a dialect continuum (or dialect chain), which contains a sequence of varieties, where each mutually intelligible with the next, but may not be mutually intelligible with distant varieties.[35]
Others have argued that mutual intelligibility occurs in varying degrees, and the potential difficulty in distinguishing between intelligibility and prior familiarity with the other variety. However, recent research suggests that there is some empirical evidence in favor of using some form of the intelligibility criterion to distinguish between languages and dialects,[36] though mutuality may not be as relevant as initially thought. The requirement for mutuality is abandoned by the Language Survey Reference Guide of SIL International, publishers of the Ethnologue and the registration authority for the ISO 639-3 standard for language codes. They define a dialect cluster as a central variety together with all those varieties whose speakers understand the central variety at a specified threshold level or higher. If the threshold level is high, usually between 70% and 85%, the cluster is designated as a language.[37][clarification needed]
Sociolinguistic definitions
Another occasionally used criterion for discriminating dialects from languages is the
In contrast, speakers in the Netherlands of
Within this framework, W. A. Stewart defined a language as an autonomous variety in addition to all the varieties that are heteronomous with respect to it, noting that an essentially equivalent definition had been stated by Charles A. Ferguson and John J. Gumperz in 1960.[39][40] A heteronomous variety may be considered a dialect of a language defined in this way.[39] In these terms, Danish and Norwegian, though mutually intelligible to a large degree, are considered separate languages.[41] In the framework of Heinz Kloss, these are described as languages by ausbau (development) rather than by abstand (separation).[42]
Dialect and language clusters
In other situations, a closely related group of varieties possess considerable (though incomplete) mutual intelligibility, but none dominates the others. To describe this situation, the editors of the Handbook of African Languages introduced the term dialect cluster as a classificatory unit at the same level as a language.[43] A similar situation, but with a greater degree of mutual unintelligibility, has been termed a language cluster.[44]
In the Language Survey Reference Guide issued by SIL International, who produce Ethnologue, a dialect cluster is defined as a central variety together with a collection of varieties whose speakers can understand the central variety at a specified threshold level (usually between 70% and 85%) or higher. It is not required that peripheral varieties be understood by speakers of the central variety or of other peripheral varieties. A minimal set of central varieties providing coverage of a dialect continuum may be selected algorithmically from intelligibility data.[45]
Political factors
In many societies, however, a particular dialect, often the sociolect of the elite class, comes to be identified as the "standard" or "proper" version of a language by those seeking to make a social distinction and is contrasted with other varieties. As a result of this, in some contexts, the term "dialect" refers specifically to varieties with low social status. In this secondary sense of "dialect", language varieties are often called dialects rather than languages:
- if they have no standard or codifiedform,
- if they are rarely or never used in writing (outside reported speech),
- if the speakers of the given language do not have a state of their own,
- if they lack prestigewith respect to some other, often standardised, variety.
The status of "language" is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development. Romansh came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects and classical Latin. An opposite example is Chinese, whose variations such as Mandarin and Cantonese are often called dialects and not languages in China, despite their mutual unintelligibility.
National boundaries sometimes make the distinction between "language" and "dialect" an issue of political importance. A group speaking a separate "language" may be seen as having a greater claim to being a separate "people", and thus to be more deserving of its own independent state, while a group speaking a "dialect" may be seen as a sub-group, part of a bigger people, which must content itself with regional autonomy.[citation needed]
The
Terminology
By the definition most commonly used by linguists, any linguistic variety can be considered a "dialect" of some language—"everybody speaks a dialect". According to that interpretation, the criteria above merely serve to distinguish whether two varieties are dialects of the same language or dialects of different languages.
The terms "language" and "dialect" are not necessarily mutually exclusive, although they are often perceived to be.
There are various terms that linguists may use to avoid taking a position on whether the speech of a community is an independent language in its own right or a dialect of another language. Perhaps the most common is "
Colloquial meaning of dialect
The colloquial meaning of dialect can be understood by example, e.g. in Italy[7] (see dialetto[8]), France (see patois) and the Philippines,[10][11] carries a pejorative undertone and underlines the politically and socially subordinated status of a non-national language to the country's single official language. In other words, these "dialects" are not actual dialects in the same sense as in the first usage, as they do not derive from the politically dominant language and are therefore not one of its varieties, but instead they evolved in a separate and parallel way and may thus better fit various parties' criteria for a separate language.
Despite this, these "dialects" may often be historically
Dialect and accent
John Lyons writes that "Many linguists [...] subsume differences of accent under differences of dialect."[17] In general, accent refers to variations in pronunciation, while dialect also encompasses specific variations in grammar and vocabulary.[50]
Examples
Arabic
There are three geographical zones in which Arabic is spoken (Jastrow 2002).[51] Zone I is categorized as the area in which Arabic was spoken before the rise of Islam. It is the Arabian Peninsula, excluding the areas where southern Arabian was spoken. Zone II is categorized as the areas to which Arabic speaking peoples moved as a result of the conquests of Islam. Included in Zone II are the Levant, Egypt, North Africa, Iraq, and some parts of Iran. The Egyptian, Sudanese, and Levantine dialects (including the Syrian dialect) are well documented, and widely spoken and studied. Zone III comprises the areas in which Arabic is spoken outside of the continuous Arabic Language area.
Spoken dialects of the
German
When talking about the German language, the term
The extent to which the dialects are spoken varies according to a number of factors: In Northern Germany, dialects are less common than in the South. In cities, dialects are less common than in the countryside. In a public environment, dialects are less common than in a familiar environment.
The situation in Switzerland and Liechtenstein is different from the rest of the German-speaking countries. The Swiss German dialects are the default everyday language in virtually every situation, whereas standard German is only spoken in education, partially in media, and with foreigners not possessing knowledge of Swiss German. Most Swiss German speakers perceive standard German to be a foreign language.
The
The Frisian languages spoken in Germany and the Netherlands are excluded from the German dialects.
Italy
Italy is an often quoted example of a country where the second definition of the word "dialect" (dialetto
During the
In the early 20th century, the
The most widely spoken languages of Italy, which are not to be confused with regional Italian, fall within a family of which even Italian is part, the Italo-Dalmatian group. This wide category includes:
- the complex of the ;
- the , is considered significantly influenced by the Neapolitan and the below-mentioned language groups;
- the Calabrian.
Modern Italian is heavily based on the
Aside from the
, etc.).Finally, other languages from a number of different families follow the last two major groups: the
Though mostly mutually unintelligible, the exact degree to which all the Italian languages are mutually unintelligible varies, often correlating with geographical distance or geographical barriers between the languages; some regional Italian languages that are closer in geographical proximity to each other or closer to each other on the dialect continuum are more or less mutually intelligible. For instance, a speaker of purely Eastern Lombard, a language in Northern Italy's Lombardy region that includes the Bergamasque dialect, would have severely limited mutual intelligibility with a purely Italian speaker and would be nearly completely unintelligible to a Sicilian-speaking individual. Due to Eastern Lombard's status as a Gallo-Italic language, an Eastern Lombard speaker may, in fact, have more mutual intelligibility with an Occitan, Catalan, or French speaker than with an Italian or Sicilian speaker. Meanwhile, a Sicilian-speaking person would have a greater degree of mutual intelligibility with a speaker of the more closely related Neapolitan language, but far less mutual intelligibility with a person speaking Sicilian Gallo-Italic, a language that developed in isolated Lombard emigrant communities on the same island as the Sicilian language.
Today, the majority of Italian nationals are able to speak Italian, though many Italians still speak their regional language regularly or as their primary day-to-day language, especially at home with family or when communicating with Italians from the same town or region.
The Balkans
The classification of speech varieties as dialects or languages and their relationship to other varieties of speech can be controversial and the verdicts inconsistent.
), however, are not mutually intelligible even though they are usually subsumed under Serbo-Croatian. How these dialects should be classified in relation to Shtokavian remains a matter of dispute.Lebanon
In
North Africa
In Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, the
Ukraine
The
Following the
Moldova
There have been cases of a variety of speech being deliberately reclassified to serve political purposes. One example is
Greater China
Unlike languages that use alphabets to indicate their pronunciation,
Interlingua
Selected list of articles on dialects
- Varieties of Arabic
- Bengali dialects
- Catalan dialects
- Varieties of Chinese
- Cypriot Greek
- Cypriot Turkish
- Danish dialects
- Dutch dialects
- English dialects
- Finnish dialects
- Varieties of French
- Georgian dialects
- German dialects
- Malayalam languages
- Varieties of Malay
- Connacht Irish, Munster Irish, Ulster Irish
- Italian dialects
- Japanese dialects
- Korean dialects
- Norwegian dialects
- Nguni languages
- Dialects of Polish
- Portuguese dialects
- Romanian dialects
- Russian dialects
- Slavic microlanguages
- Slovenian dialects
- Spanish dialects
- Swedish dialects
- Sri Lankan Tamil dialects
- Yiddish dialects
See also
References
- ^ Oxford Living Dictionaries – English. Retrieved 18 January 2019.
- ^ a b "Definition of DIALECT". Merriam-webster.com. 30 July 2023.
- ^ a b Wolfram, Walt and Schilling, Natalie. 2016. American English: Dialects and Variation. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, p. 184.
- ^ a b Daniel. W. Bruhn, Walls of the Tongue: A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Ursula K. Le Guin's The Dispossessed (PDF), p. 8, archived (PDF) from the original on 2010-06-12
- ^ ISBN 978-9004234772
- ^ a b "topolect". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2010.
- ^ a b «The often used term "Italian dialects" may create the false impression that the dialects are varieties of the standard Italian language.» Martin Maiden, M. Mair Parry (1997), The Dialects of Italy, Psychology Press, p. 2.
- ^ a b c «Parlata propria di un ambiente geografico e culturale ristretto (come la regione, la provincia, la città o anche il paese): contrapposta a un sistema linguistico affine per origine e sviluppo, ma che, per diverse ragioni (politiche, letterarie, geografiche, ecc.), si è imposto come lingua letteraria e ufficiale». Battaglia, Salvatore (1961). Grande dizionario della lingua italiana, UTET, Torino, V. IV, pp.321–322.
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- ^ a b Peter G. Gowing, William Henry Scott (1971). Acculturation in the Philippines: Essays on Changing Societies. A Selection of Papers Presented at the Baguio Religious Acculturation Conferences from 1958 to 1968. New Day Publishers. p. 157.
- ^ ISBN 9781134834365.
- ^ a b Defenders of the Indigenous Languages of the Archipelago (2007). Filipino is Not Our Language: Learn why it is Not and Find Out what it is. p. 26.
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language standard dialect.
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- ^ a b McWhorter, John (Jan 19, 2016). "What's a Language, Anyway?". The Atlantic. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
- ^ Benedikt Perak, Robert Trask, Milica Mihaljević (2005). Temeljni lingvistički pojmovi (in Serbo-Croatian). p. 81.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Schilling-Estes, Natalies (2006). "Dialect variation". In Fasold, R.W.; Connor-Linton, J. (eds.). An Introduction to Language and Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 311–341.
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- ^ Perak, Benedikt; Trask, Robert; Mihaljević, Milica (2005). Temeljni lingvistički pojmovi (in Serbo-Croatian). p. 81.
- ISBN 9788387749040.
- ISBN 9788326446177.
- ^ Aveyard, Edward (2022). "What is Dialect?". Transactions of the Yorkshire Dialect Society. 23 (122): 25–36.
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- ^ "Tomasz Kamusella. 2016. The History of the Normative Opposition of 'Language versus Dialect:' From Its Graeco-Latin Origin to Central Europe's Ethnolinguistic Nation-States (pp 189-198). Colloquia Humanistica. Vol 5". Retrieved 8 March 2022.
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- ^ a b Chambers & Trudgill (1998), p. 10.
- ^ ISBN 978-3-11-080537-6. p. 535.
- ^ Ferguson, Charles A.; Gumperz, John J. (1960). "Introduction". In Ferguson, Charles A.; Gumperz, John J. (eds.). Linguistic Diversity in South Asia: Studies in Regional, Social, and Functional Variation. Indiana University, Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics. pp. 1–18. p. 5.
- ^ Chambers & Trudgill (1998), p. 11.
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- ^ Hansford, Keir; Bendor-Samuel, John; Stanford, Ron (1976). "A provisional language map of Nigeria". Savanna. 5 (2): 115–124. p. 118.
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- ^ McWhorter, John (2016-01-19). "There's No Such Thing as a 'Language'". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2019-10-24.
- ISBN 978-1-4130-3055-6.
- ^ "Languoid" at Glottopedia.com
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- ^ Lyons (1981), p. 268.
- ISBN 978-3-11-025158-6, retrieved 2020-10-17
- ^ Danvas, Kegesa (2016). "From dialect to variation space". Cutewriters. Cutewriters Inc. Retrieved July 29, 2016.
- ^ a b c d Domenico Cerrato. "Che lingua parla un italiano?". Treccani.it.
- ^ "Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 2010-04-21.
- Piedmontese revolution of 1821 (Marzo 1821), wherein the Italian people are portrayed by Manzoni as "one by military prowess, by language, by religion, by history, by blood, and by sentiment".
- ^ Loporcaro, Michele (2009). Profilo linguistico dei dialetti italiani (in Italian). Bari: Laterza.; Marcato, Carla (2007). Dialetto, dialetti e italiano (in Italian). Bologna: Il Mulino.; Posner, Rebecca (1996). The Romance languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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- ^ Chambers, Jack; Trudgill, Peter (1998). Dialectology (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 7.
Similarly, Bulgarian politicians often argue that Macedonian is simply a dialect of Bulgarian – which is really a way of saying, of course, that they feel Macedonia ought to be part of Bulgaria. From a purely linguistic point of view, however, such arguments are not resolvable, since dialect continua admit of more-or-less but not either-or judgements.
- ISBN 978-0691043562.
Sociolinguists agree that in such situations the decision as to whether a particular variety of speech constitutes a language or a dialect is always based on political, rather than linguistic criteria (Trudgill 1974:15). A language, in other words, can be defined "as a dialect with an army and a navy" (Nash 1989:6).
- ^ a b Morris, Alice Vanderbilt, General report Archived 2006-08-14 at the Wayback Machine. New York: International Auxiliary Language Association, 1945.
- ^ Interlingua-English Dictionary. New York: Storm Publishers, 1951.
- ^ Gopsill, F. P., International languages: A matter for Interlingua. Sheffield: British Interlingua Society, 1990. "In one study, Swedish high school students learning Interlingua were able to translate passages from Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian that students of those languages found too difficult to understand."
External links
- Sounds Familiar? – Listen to regional accents and dialects of the UK on the British Library's 'Sounds Familiar' website
- International Dialects of English Archive Since 1997
- thedialectdictionary.com – Compilation of Dialects from around the globe
- A site for announcements and downloading the SEAL System
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 155–156. .