Land reforms by country
Agrarian reform and land reform have been a recurring theme of enormous consequence in world history. They are often highly political and have been achieved (or attempted) in many countries.
Latin America
Brazil
Getúlio Vargas, who rose to presidency in Brazil following the Brazilian Revolution of 1930, promised a land reform but reneged on his promise.
A first attempt to make a nationwide reform was set up in the government of
Bolivia
Land in
Chile
Colombia
Alfonso López Pumarejo (1934–1938) passed Law 200 of 1936,[1] which allowed for the expropriation of private properties, in order to promote "social interest".
Later attempts declined, until the National Front presidencies of Alberto Lleras Camargo (1958–1962) and Carlos Lleras Restrepo (1966–1970), which respectively created the Colombian Institute for Agrarian Reform (INCORA) and further developed land entitlement. In 1968 and 1969 alone, the INCORA issued more than 60,000 land titles to farmers and workers.
Despite this, the process was then halted and the situation began to reverse itself, as the subsequent violent actions of drug lords, paramilitaries, guerrillas and opportunistic large landowners severely contributed to a renewed concentration of land and to the displacement of small landowners.[2]
In the early 21st century, tentative government plans to use the land legally expropriated from
Cuba
Land reform was among the chief planks of the revolutionary platform of 1959. Almost all large holdings were seized by the
Guatemala
Land reform occurred during the "Ten Years of Spring" (1944–1954) under the governments of Juan José Arévalo and Jacobo Árbenz, after a popular revolution forced out dictator Jorge Ubico. The largest part of the reform was the law officially called Decree 900, which redistributed all uncultivated land from landholdings that were larger than 673 acres (272 ha). If the estates were between 672 acres (272 ha) and 224 acres (91 ha) in size, uncultivated land was expropriated only if less than two-thirds of it was in use.[3] The law benefited 500,000 people, or one-sixth of the Guatemalan Population. Historians have called this reform as one of the most successful land reforms in history. However, the United Fruit Company felt threatened by the law and lobbied the United States government, which was a factor in the US-backed coup that deposed Árbenz in 1954. The majority of the reform was rolled back by the US supported military dictatorship that followed.[3]
Mexico
In 1856, the first land reform was driven by the
In 1934, president Lázaro Cárdenas passed the 1934 Agrarian Code and accelerated the pace of land reform. He helped redistribute 45,000,000 acres (180,000 km2) of land, 4,000,000 acres (16,000 km2) of which were expropriated from American owned agricultural property. This caused conflict between Mexico and the United States. Agrarian reform had come close to extinction in the early 1930s. The first few years of the Cárdenas's reform were marked by high food prices, falling wages, high inflation, and low agricultural yields. In 1935 land reform began sweeping across the country in the periphery and core of commercial agriculture. The Cárdenas alliance with peasant groups was awarded by the destruction of the hacienda system. Cárdenas distributed more land than all his revolutionary predecessors put together, a 400% increase. The land reform justified itself in terms of productivity; average agricultural production during the three-year period from 1939 to 1941 was higher than it had been at any time since the beginning of the revolution.
Starting with the government of Miguel Alemán (1946–52), land reform steps made in previous governments were rolled back. Alemán's government allowed capitalist entrepreneurs to rent peasant land. This created phenomenon known as neolatifundismo, where land owners build up large-scale private farms on the basis of controlling land which remains ejidal but is not sown by the peasants to whom it is assigned.
In 1970, President Luis Echeverría began his term by declaring land reform dead. In the face of peasant revolt, he was forced to backtrack, and embarked on the biggest land reform program since Cárdenas. Echeverría legalized take-overs of huge foreign-owned private farms, which were turned into new collective ejidos.
In 1988, President Carlos Salinas de Gortari was elected. In December 1991, he amended Article 27 of the Constitution, making it legal to sell ejido land and allow peasants to put up their land as collateral for a loan.
Today, most Mexican peasants are landowners. However, their holdings are usually too small, and farmers must supplement their incomes by working for the remaining landlords, and/or
See also: México Indígena (2005-2008 project)
Nicaragua
During and after the
The last months of Sandinista rule were criticized for the Piñata Plan, which distributed large tracts of land to prominent Sandinistas. After their
Peru
Land reform in the 1950s largely eliminated a centuries-old system of debt peonage.
Further land reform occurred after the
A third land reform occurred as part of a
Venezuela
In 2001,
The plan met with heavy opposition which led to a
Despite the land reforms carried out by the government, which, according to some sources, have reduced the so-called latifundios (which means "big landownership"), most receivers of the land didn't have any knowledge about how to cultivate the land and grow crops. In many cases, peasants didn't even water, since water infrastructures were still missing in most of the regions.[7]
Moreover, in some cases, campesinos didn't gain direct ownership of the land, but only the right to farm it without having to pay the rent and without sanctions from the government, and in some cases the land wasn't given to single peasant family, but managed in
Paraguay
Paraguay has been known to have experienced some obstacles in its political history that have been known mostly as dictatorship and corruption. Paraguay's history is what has shaped the Paraguay we see today and as well as what has brought along the unequal land distributions. From the
After decades of controversy over government land policy, two agrarian laws were created in 1963. These laws were known as the Agrarian Statute, "limiting the maximum size of landholding to 10,000 hectares in Eastern Paraguay and 20,000 hectares in the Chaco."[12] However, these laws were rarely enforced. Under the Agrarian Statute, there was also the creation of IBR (Instituto de Bienestar Rural) which "mandated to plan colonization programs, issue land titles to farmers, and provide new colonies with support services."[12] Although IBR focused on serving the land needs of farmers their task was so big and its resources so little that their goals for helping farmers were out of reach.
Paraguayan democracy came a long way after its 35-year dictatorship, but the unequal distribution of land is still a problem for the nation since their economy is one that is dependent on its agriculture. A census in 2008 revealed that “80 percent of agriculture land is held by just 1.6 percent of landowners, with the 600 largest properties occupying 40 percent of the total productive land. More than 300,000 family farmers have no land at all.”[10] Paraguayans have formed unions such as National Federation of Campesinos (FNC) who has fought for justice on the unequal land distributions in Latin America they have helped many campesinos reclaim acres of land since 1989. The ongoing inequality of land distribution has led to a demand for land regulation. Citizens remain cautious about the nation's democracy and fearful of the return of dictatorship and corruption.
The problem regarding land distribution has worsened recently due to the expansion of monoculture in specific, soy. Paraguay has become the fourth world's largest distributors of
Thousands of rural
A great majority of Paraguayans continue to practice
In December 2017, “over one-third of the population was
Middle East and North Africa
Ottoman Empire
The
Egypt
Initially,
Iran
Significant land reform in Iran took place under the shah as part of the socio-economic reforms of the White Revolution, begun in 1962, and agreed upon through a public referendum. At this time the Iranian economy was not performing well and there was political unrest. Essentially, the land reforms amounted to a huge redistribution of land to rural peasants who previously had no possibility of owning land as they were poorly paid labourers. The land reforms continued from 1962 until 1971 with three distinct phases of land distribution: private, government-owned and endowed land. These reforms resulted in the newly created peasant landowners owning six to seven million hectares, around 52-63% of Iran's agricultural land. According to Country-Data, even though there had been a considerable redistribution of land, the amount received by individual peasants was not enough to meet most families' basic needs, "About 75 percent of the peasant owners [however] had less than 7 hectares, an amount generally insufficient for anything but subsistence agriculture.".[14] By 1979 a quarter of prime land was in disputed ownership and half of the productive land was in the hands of 200,000 absentee landlords[14] The large land owners were able to retain the best land with the best access to fresh water and irrigation facilities. In contrast, not only were the new peasant land holdings too small to produce an income but the peasants also lacked both quality irrigation system and sustained government support to enable them to develop their land to make a reasonable living. Set against the economic boom from oil revenue it became apparent that the Land Reforms did not make life better for the rural population: according to Amid, "..only a small group of rural people experienced increasing improvements in their welfare and poverty remained the lot of the majority".[15] Moghadam argues[citation needed] that the structural changes to Iran, including the land reforms, initiated by the White Revolution, contributed to the revolution in 1979 which overthrew the Shah and turned Iran into an Islamic republic.
Iraq
Under British Mandate, Iraq's land was moved from communal land owned by the tribe to tribal sheikhs that agreed to work with the British Empire. Known as compradors, these families controlled much of Iraq's arable land until the end of British rule in 1958. Throughout the 1920s and 30s, more and more land began to be centered in the hands of just a couple families. By 1958 eight individual families owned almost 1 million acres (400 thousand hectares). However, the British did attempt to instill some reforms to increase the productivity of the land in Iraq. In 1926 the Pump Law was introduced, essentially legislating that all newly irrigated land would be tax free for 4 years. This led to some short term gains in land productivity. If land was cultivated for 15 years, it then became the property of the person who cultivated that land. From 1914 to 1943 there was an increase from 1 million to 4.25 million acres of land developed. Unfortunately, irrigation of the land was irresponsible, and many farmers didn't allow for drainage, which led to a buildup of salt and minerals in the land, killing its productivity.[16]
In 1958 the rise of the Iraqi Communist Party led to the seizing of much of the land by the Iraqi Republic. Landholdings were capped at 600 acres (240 hectares) in arable areas and 1,200 acres (490 hectares) in areas that had rainfall. The concentrated landholdings by the state were then redistributed among the populace, in amounts of 20 acres (8.1 hectares) in irrigated land, with 40 acres (16 hectares) in land with rainfall.
In 1970, the
Maghreb
As elsewhere in North Africa, lands formerly held by European farmers have been taken over. The nationalisation of agricultural land in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia led to the departure of the majority of Europeans.[18]
Syria
Land reforms were first implemented in Syria during 1958. The Agricultural Relations Law laid down a redistribution of rights in landownership, tenancy and management.
The reforms were halted in 1961 due to a culmination of factors, including opposition from large landowners and severe crop failure during a drought between 1958 and 1961, whilst Syria was a member of the doomed United Arab Republic (UAR).
After the Ba'ath Party gained power in 1963 the reforms were resumed. The reforms were portrayed by the governing Ba'ath as politically motivated to benefit the rural property-less communities. According to Zaki al-Arsuzi, a co-founder of the Ba'ath Party, the reforms would "liberate 75 percent of the Syrian population and prepare them to be citizens qualified to participate in the building of the state".[19]
It has been argued that the land reform represented work by the 'socialist government', however, by 1984 the private sector controlled 74 percent of Syria's arable land.[20] This questions both Ba'ath claims of commitment to the redistribution of land to the majority of peasants as well as the state government being socialist (if it allowed the majority of land to be owned in the private sector how could it truly be socialist?). Hinnebusch argued that the reforms were a way of galvanising support from the large rural population: "they [Ba'ath Party members] used the implementation of agrarian reform to win over and organise peasants and curb traditional power in the countryside".[21] To this extent the reforms succeeded and resulted with an increase in Ba'ath party membership. They also prevented political threat emerging from rural areas by bringing the rural population into the system as supporters.
South Asia
Afghanistan
Afghanistan has had a couple of attempts at land reform.
In 1975, the
After the 1978
India
Under the British occupation, the land system in India has been feudalist, with few absentee landlords holding most of the lands and claiming high rents from poor peasants. The demand for a land reform was a major theme in the demand for independence. After independence, the different states in India gradually started a land reform process in four main categories: abolition of intermediaries (rent collectors under the pre-Independence land revenue system); tenancy regulation (to improve the contractual terms including security of tenure); a ceiling on landholdings (to redistribute surplus land to the landless); and attempts to consolidate disparate landholdings. The extent and success of these reforms varied greatly between the different states of India.
Sri Lanka
In 1972, the Government of
Europe
Albania
Czechoslovakia
In 1918, all land owned by Habsburgs was confiscated. In 1919, the Land Reform Act forced large landholders - mostly nobility and church - to sell their land to the state which in turn sold it to the peasants. This concerned arable land only, forests, vineyards, and pastures were excluded. During the Holocaust in Slovakia, the Land Reform Act of February 1940 confiscated and nationalized 101,423 hectares (250,620 acres) of land owned by 4,943 Jews.[28]
Estonia
Finland
In the general reparcelling out of land, begun in 1757 when Finland was a part of the Swedish Empire, the medieval model of all fields consisting of numerous strips, each belonging to a farm, was replaced by a model of fields and forest areas each belonging to a single farm.[29] In the further reparcellings, which started in 1848 when Finland was part of the Russian Empire, the idea of concentrating all the land in a farm to a single piece of real estate was reinforced. In these reparcelling processes, the land is redistributed in direct proportion to earlier prescription.[30] Both the general reparcelling and the further reparcelling processes are still active in some parts of the country, and a new reparcelling can be initiated when the local need for such reparcelling arises.[31] After the Finnish Civil War, when Finland had become independent, a series of land reforms followed. These included the compensated transfer of lease-holdings (torppa) to the leasers and prohibition of forestry companies to acquire land. The reforms led to greater economic equality.[32]
After the Second World War, Karelians evacuated from areas ceded to the Soviet Union were given land in remaining Finnish areas, taken from public and private holdings with less than full compensation to the previous owners. Also the war veterans, and their widows benefited from these allotments. In addition, land could be provided to farms considered too small. The land could be acquired either via a voluntary purchase by the state or via expropriation. As a result of post-WWII land reform, 30,000 new farms were established, 33,000 small farms received more land and 67,000 families received either a plot for a single-family home or a homestead with some arable land.[33]
Germany
Land reform in Germany can be seen as three separate but connected movements that build on each other chronologically. Peasants were first liberated from serfdom in the
Ireland
At the 19th century, most of the land in Ireland belonged to
The governments of the
Italy
Land reform has been a long-standing and widespread problem before the 20th century, especially in
The first effective land reform was carried out in 1950, right after the birth of the
The decree, financed in part with the funds of
After the land reform of 1950, large estates (latifondi) in some regions of Italy by law cannot be bigger than 300 ha (740 acres).
A 2022 study found that the post-WWII land reform "fueled comparative underdevelopment and precarity locally over the long term. Several related mechanisms delayed development in land reform zones: a slower transition out of agriculture, lower labor mobility, and an aging demographic."[43]
Russia and the Soviet Union
The Emancipation reform of 1861, effected during the reign of Alexander II of Russia, abolished serfdom throughout the Russian Empire. More than 23 million people received their liberty. Serfs were granted the full rights of free citizens, gaining the rights to marry without having to gain consent, to own property and to own a business. The Manifesto prescribed that peasants would be able to buy the land from the landlords.
Until the beginning of the 20th century, the vast majority of Russian peasants held their land in communal ownership within peasant communities called
The Stolypin reforms and the majority of their benefits were reversed after the October Revolution of 1917. The Decree on Land, issued by Vladimir Lenin's new Bolshevik government, and the "Fundamental Law of Land Socialization" of 1918, decreed that private ownership of land is totally abolished - land may not be sold, purchased, leased, mortgaged, or otherwise alienated. All land, whether state, crown, monastery, church, factory, entailed, private, public, peasant, etc., shall be confiscated without compensation and become the property of the whole people, and pass into the use of all those who cultivate it. These decrees were superseded by the 1922 Land Code of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. After the universal agricultural collectivization, land codes of the Soviet republics lost their significance. See Agriculture in the Soviet Union.
After winning World War II and occupying much of Central and Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union implemented similar collectivization policies in its new satellite states in the Eastern Bloc.[44]
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, a new land code was enacted, allowing private land ownership.
Latvia
The Latvian Land Reform of 1920 was a land reform act expropriating land under the first
Sweden
In 1757, the general reparcelling out of land began. In this process, the medieval principle of dividing all the fields in a village into strips, each belonging to a farm, was changed into a principle of each farm consisting of a few relatively large areas of land. The land was redistributed in proportion to earlier possession of land, while uninhabited forests far from villages were socialized.
In the 20th century, Sweden, almost non-violently, arrived at regulating the length minimum of
Ukraine
Ukraine has nearly as much farmland as France and Germany combined.[46]
1990s
Before the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991, Ukrainian farmers worked on collective farms and a free market had only existed for around a year.[47][48] In the aftermath of the dissolution, more than 6 million Ukrainians received plots of arable land, getting between two and three hectares each. In 2001, a ban was imposed on sales of farmland, in order to deter speculation. The law also prevented the farmers from using farmland as collateral for bank loans. The 2001 law has also prevented the government from selling millions of additional hectares. Only five other countries in the world, among them China and North Korea,[49][50] had maintained similar restrictions on the sale of private agricultural land.[51][52]
Reform
In Ukraine a debate around the land reform has lasted for more than 20 years and it is still not over.
— Olena Bogdan, 2011[53]
The
In July 2019, President Volodymyr Zelenskyy has initiated the reforms of the land laws to pass to lift the ban.[57][58] A brawl broke out in the Verkhovna Rada (Ukraine's parliament) on 6 February 2020 over the bill.[59] The Verkhovna Rada terminated the Honcharuk Government on 5 March 2020 and pledged the passage of legislation sought by the International Monetary Fund to lift the ban on sales of agricultural land.[60] The Honcharuk Government had appeared to be too weak to pass the necessary reforms through the Verkhovna Rada during several weeks of protest by agriculturalists, even in spite of Zelenskyy's personal appearances.[51] By March 2020, the IMF remained concerned about the pace of land reforms.[61] Ukraine in 2020 needed to repay $17 billion of foreign loans and the International Monetary Fund pressured the government to enact laws which would hasten land reform in exchange for a $5.5 billion loan-package.[62]
On 31 March 2020, the Verkhovna Rada adopted a law introducing amendments on the sale of agricultural land.[63] Per the law, the moratorium on the sale of agricultural land was lifted on 1 July 2021.[63] From July 2021 until 1 January 2024, temporarily no more than 100 hectares were allowed to be owned per person and no companies were able to buy land.[63][64]
After reform
As of 2023 the average price per hectare was 40000 hryvnias (apprixamately 1060 USD).[1]
United Kingdom
Advocates of land reform in Britain have included the 17th-century
Scotland
In the 21st century, land reform in Scotland has focused on the abolition and modernisation of Scotland's antiquated feudal land tenure system, security of tenure for crofters and decentralisation of Scotland's highly concentrated private land ownership.[69] Scotland's land reform is distinct from other contemporary land reforms in its focus on community land ownership[70] ,[71] with the Land Reform (Scotland) Acts of 2003 and 2016 establishing the Community Right to Buy, allowing rural and urban communities first right of refusal to purchase local land when it comes up for sale. Crofting communities are granted a similar Right to Buy though they do not require a willing seller to buy out local crofting land.[72] Under the Community Empowerment (Scotland) Act 2015 and Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2016, Scottish ministers can grant a compulsory sale order for vacant or derelict private land or land which, if owned by the local community, could further sustainable development.[73][74]
Africa
Ethiopia
Historically, Ethiopia was divided into the northern highlands, which constituted the core of the old Christian kingdom, and the southern highlands, most of which were brought under imperial rule by conquest. In the northern regions, the major form of ownership was a type of communal system known as rist. According to this system, all descendants of an individual founder were entitled to a share, and individuals had the right to use a plot of family land. Rist was hereditary, inalienable, and inviolable. No user of any piece of land could sell his or her share outside the family or mortgage or bequeath his or her share as a gift, as the land belonged not to the individual but to the descent group. Most peasants in the northern highlands held at least some rist land. Absentee landlordism was rare, and landless tenants were estimated at only about 20% of holdings. On the contrary, in the southern provinces, few farmers owned the land on which they worked. After the conquest, officials divided southern land equally among the state, the church, and the indigenous population. Tenancy in the southern provinces ranged between 65% and 80% of the holdings, and tenant payments to landowners averaged as high as 50% of the produce. In the Eastern Lowland periphery and the Great Rift Valley, most land were used for grazing. The pastoral social structure is based on a kinship system with strong interclan connections; grazing and water rights are regulated by custom.
Beginning in the 1950s, the government tried to modernize the agriculture by granting large tracts of traditional grazing lands to large corporations and converting them into large-scale commercial farms. In the north and south, peasant farmers lacked the means to improve production because of the fragmentation of holdings, a lack of credit, and the absence of modern facilities. Particularly in the south, the insecurity of tenure and high rents killed the peasants' incentive to improve production. Further, those attempts by the Imperial government to improve the peasant's title to their land were often met with suspicion. By the mid-1960s, many sectors of Ethiopian society favored land reform. University students led the land reform movement and campaigned against the government's reluctance to introduce land reform programs and the lack of commitment to integrated rural development.
In 1974, the socialist Derg government rose to power, and on March 4, 1975, the Derg announced its land reform program. The government nationalized rural land without compensation, abolished tenancy, forbade the hiring of wage labor on private farms, ordered all commercial farms to remain under state control, and granted each peasant family so-called "possessing rights" to a plot of land not to exceed ten hectares. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church lost all its land. Although the Derg gained little respect during its rule, this reform resulted in a rare show of support for the junta.
Tenant farmers in southern Ethiopia welcomed the land reform, but in the northern highlands many people resisted land reform and perceived it as an attack on their rights to rist land. The lowland peripheries were only slightly affected by the reforms.
The land reform destroyed the feudal order. It changed landowning patterns – particularly in the south – in favor of peasants and small landowners. It also provided the opportunity for peasants to participate in local matters by permitting them to form associations.
Kenya
The colonial administration in Kenya implemented a land documentation system in the early 1900s. In the 1970s, politicians engaged in extensive sales and exploitation of fraudulent land documents. By the late 1990s, the land documentation system had fallen into disrepute due to extensive fraud.[75]
Two land reforms occurred amid the Mau Mau uprising. The first, in the mid-1950s, allowed Africans to consolidate and gain individual legal titles to their land. The second enabled Africans to buy land from Europeans, many of whom sought to liquidate their holdings in Kenya prior to Kenyan independence.[76]
In the 1960s, president Jomo Kenyatta launched a peaceful land reform program based on "willing buyer-willing seller". It was funded by the United Kingdom, the former colonial power.
In 2006, president Mwai Kibaki said it will repossess all land owned by "absentee landlords" in the coastal strip and redistribute it to squatters.[77]
A 2023 study found that over the course of independent Kenyan history, democratic governments engaged in greater formalization of land rights than autocratic regimes and that democratic governments tended to formalize land rights to gain the support of pivotal swing voters.[78]
Namibia
Namibia's colonial past had resulted in substantial land inequality[79] where about 20% of the population (mostly white settlers) owned about 75 percent of all the land.[80]
In 1990, shortly after Namibia achieved independence from South Africa, its first president Sam Nujoma initiated a plan for land reform, in which land would be redistributed from whites to blacks. Legislation passed in September 1994, with a compulsory, compensated approach.[81] The land reform has been slow, mainly because Namibia's constitution only allows land to be bought from farmers willing to sell. Also, the price of land is very high in Namibia, which further complicates the matter.
By 2007, some 12% of the total commercial farmland in the country was taken away from white Namibian farmers and given to black citizens.
South Africa
The
In 1991, after a long anti-apartheid struggle led by the African National Congress, State President F. W. de Klerk declared the repeal of several apartheid rules, particularly: the Population Registration Act, the Group Areas Act, and the Natives' Land Act. A catch-all Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act was passed.[83] These measures ensured no one could claim, or be deprived of, any land rights on the basis of race.
In 1994, shortly after the African National Congress came to power in South Africa in the first general election, it initiated a land reform process focused on three areas: restitution, land tenure reform and land redistribution.[82][84] Restitution, where the government compensates (monetary) individuals who had been forcefully removed, has been very unsuccessful and the policy has now shifted to redistribution.
Initially, land was bought from its owners (willing seller) by the government (willing buyer) and redistributed, in order to maintain public confidence in the land market.[82] This system has proved to be very difficult to implement, because many owners do not actually see the land they are purchasing and are not involved in the important decisions made at the beginning of the purchase and negotiation.
In 2000 the South African Government decided to review and change the redistribution and tenure process to a more decentralized and area based planning process. The idea is to have local integrated development plans in 47 districts.[85]
Zimbabwe
The 1930
By 1979, when Zimbabwe gained independence, 46.5% of the country's arable land was owned by around 6,000 commercial farmers,[87] and white farmers, who made up less than 1% of the population, owned 70% of the best farming land.[88]
As part of the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979, president Robert Mugabe initiated a "willing buyer, willing seller" plan, in which white land-owners were encouraged to sell their lands to the government, with partial funding from Britain.[89] Around 71,000 families (perhaps 500,000 people) settled on 3.5 million hectares of former white-owned land under this programme, which was described by "The Economist" in 1989 as "perhaps the most successful aid programme in Africa".[90]
The 1992 Land Acquisition Act was enacted to speed up the land reform process by removing the "willing seller, willing buyer" clause, limiting the size of farms and introducing a land tax (although the tax was never implemented.)[91] The Act empowered the government to buy land compulsorily for redistribution, and a fair compensation was to be paid for land acquired. Landowners could challenge in court the price set by the acquiring authority. Opposition by landowners increased throughout the period of 1992 to 1997. In the 1990s, less than 1 million hectares (2.47 million acres) were acquired, and fewer than 20,000 families were resettled. Much of the land acquired during what has become known as "phase one" of land reform was of poor quality, according to Human Rights Watch. Only 19 percent of the almost 3.5 million hectares (8.65 million acres) of resettled land was considered prime, or farmable.
In 1997, the new British government, led by Tony Blair, unilaterally stopped funding the "willing buyer, willing seller" land reform programme. Britain's ruling Labour Party felt no obligation to continue paying white farmers compensation.
In 2000, a referendum on constitutional amendments was held. The proposed amendments called for a "fast track" land reform and allowed the government to confiscate white-owned land for redistribution to black farmers without compensation. The motion failed with 55% of participants against the referendum.[92] However, self-styled "war veterans", led by Chenjerai Hunzvi, began invading white-owned farms. Those who did not leave voluntarily were often tortured and sometimes killed.[93] On 6 April 2000, Parliament pushed through an amendment, taken word for word from the draft constitution that was rejected by voters, allowing the seizure of white-owned farmlands without due reimbursement or payment.[94] In this first wave of farm invasions, a total of 110,000 square kilometres of land had been seized.
Parliament, dominated by
During the "fast track", many parcels of land came under the control of people close to the government. The several forms of forcible change in management caused a severe drop in production and other economic disruptions.
North America
Canada
A land reform was carried out as part of
United States
Following the
Many
In March, Congress established the
The final reform attempts of Reconstruction occurred within state governments. In South Carolina, a land commission was established, which purchased property and sold it on long-term credit.[108] Other state Republicans utilized new tax systems, penalizing large estates, to seize and divide land and stimulate black ownership. This indirect method achieved little, as taxes were repaid and lands were reclaimed. Of property not redeemed, much was exploited by investors.[109]
Radicals began to fall even earlier, with the failure of Johnson's impeachment. Liberal Republicans, eroding the era's political landscape, called for an immediate end to “black barbarism”.[110][111] White supremacist violence and the Long Depression[112] weakened Reconstruction to the breaking point. With the Compromise of 1877, it was finished.[113]
In the 19th century, Native American tribes owned about 138 million acres (560,000 km2) of land in the USA. Land was considered the property of the whole tribe, which used it to cater to the needs of the individual tribe members. This approach to land ownership was different than the white European approach, which regarded land as private property of individuals.[citation needed]
Many US politicians[who?] believed it was important to assimilate Native Americans into white American culture, and thus have their lands open for commerce and development. The Dawes Act (also known as the General Allotment Act or the Dawes Severalty Act), adopted by Congress in 1887, authorized the President of the United States to survey Native American tribal land and divide it into allotments for individual Indians. Those who accepted allotments and lived separately from the tribe would be granted United States citizenship. The Dawes Act was amended in 1891, and again in 1906 by the Burke Act.
Through the Dawes Act, many Indians received private title to a land-plot, but most of the Indian lands were considered "surplus", and put to sale to white European settlers. Thus, the total amount of land owned by Indians decreased to only 48 million acres (190,000 km2) in 1934.[citation needed]
Most tribal land still owned by ethnic Indians was recollectivized in 1934.
East Asia
Mainland China
Since the fall of the Qing dynasty in the 1911 Revolution, China has been through a series of land reform programs. The founder of the Nationalist Party, Sun Yat-sen, advocated a "land to the tiller" program of equal distribution of land. which was partly implemented by the Nationalist government under Chiang Kai-shek. In the 1940s, the Sino-American Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction, funded with American money, with the support of the national government, carried out land reform and community action programs in several provinces.
In October 1947, two years before the foundation of the People's Republic of China (PRC), the Chinese Communist Party launched land reform campaigns that established control in North China villages.
In the mid-1950s, a second land reform during the
A third land reform beginning in the late 1970s re-introduced the family-based contract system known as the
Since 1983, China has launched a series of land policy reforms to improve land-use efficiency, to rationalize land allocation, to enhance land management, and to coordinate urban and rural development. These land policy reforms have yielded positive impacts on urban land use as well as negative socioeconomic consequences. On the positive side, they have contributed to emerging land markets, increased government revenue for the financing of massive infrastructure projects and provision of public goods, and improved the rationalization of land use. On the negative side, problems such as loss of social equity, socioeconomic conflicts, and government corruption have emerged.[115]
Since 1998 China is in the midst of drafting the new
Taiwan
In the 1950s, after the
Japan
The first modern land reform, called the Land Tax Reform or chisokaisei (地租改正), passed in 1873, six years after the Meiji Restoration. It established the right of private land ownership in Japan for the first time and was a major restructuring of the previous land taxation system.
The government initially ordered individual farmers to measure the plots of their land themselves, calculate their taxes, and submit the results to local tax officials. However, difficulties arose with the honesty of the measuring system and the government responded by forcefully changing land values to meet the set amount if self-reported values did not meet projected values. This caused widespread resentment among farmers and several large-scale riots, causing the government to lower the tax rate from 3% to 2.5%. The department continued its aggressive taxation until 1878, but the strictness of rules gradually decreased as it became clear that required amounts would be met. By 1880, seven years after the start of the land reforms, the new system had been completely implemented.
Private land ownership was recognized for the first time in Japan with the issuing of land titles. Previously, individual farmers were merely borrowing the land from feudal lords, who in turn were borrowing the land from the emperor. The reform abolished this archaic system of land ownership, and began to allow landowners to use their property as a financial asset in collateral or other investment. This law was one of the first steps towards the development of capitalism in Japan, paralleling the English (and later United Kingdom) statute Quia Emptores enacted several centuries earlier.
Another major land reform was carried out in 1947, during the
Between 1947 and 1949, approximately 5,800,000 acres (23,000 km2) of land (approximately 38% of Japan's cultivated land) was purchased from the landlords under the reform program and re-sold at extremely low prices (after inflation) to the farmers who worked them. By 1950, three million peasants had acquired land, dismantling a power structure that the landlords had long dominated.[118]
South Korea
From 1945 to 1950, United States Army Military Government in Korea and First Republic of Korea authorities carried out a land reform that retained the institution of private property. They confiscated and redistributed all land held by the Japanese colonial government, Japanese companies, and individual Japanese colonists. The Korean government carried out a reform whereby Koreans with large landholdings were obliged to divest most of their land. A new class of independent, family proprietors was created.
North Korea
By the end of the Second World War, 58% of arable land in North Korea was privately owned by Japanese colonists and Korean feudal landlords comprising 4% of the population. On March 5, 1946, the North Korean Provisional People’s Committee enacted the 1946 Land Reform Law whereby both Japanese colonists would have their entire estate expropriated and Korean landlords in possession of more than 50,000 square meters of land would have their estates expropriated and distributed to existing tenant farmers for free, abolishing the existing tenant farming system. In just one month, the Provisional People's Committee of North Korea and the Workers' Party of North Korea led land reform by organizing 90,697 members into 11,500 farming committees. They organized 210,000 farmers into self-defense forces who supported the work of the farming committees. During three weeks of land reform, 98 percent of confiscated land was distributed to farmers who in turn became the possessors of up to 13,200 square meters of land and over one million hectares of land were expropriated. The early land reform may have been partially intended to prepare for the Korean War by improving the South Korean public's perception of the Communist government in the north as well as by providing large stockpiles of food.[119]
During the 1954-58 transition period, farm holdings went through three progressively collective phases: permanent mutual aid teams; semisocialist cooperatives; and complete socialist cooperatives. In the final stage, all land and farm implements were owned collectively by the members of each cooperative. The pace of collectivization quickened during 1956, and by the end of that year, about 80% of all farmland was cooperatively owned. By August 1958, more than 13,300 cooperatives with an average of eighty households and 130 hectares of land dotted the countryside. In October 1958, the Workers' Party of Korea government increased the size of the average cooperative to 300 households managing 500 hectares of land through consolidation of all farms in each village.[120][121]
Southeast Asia
Cambodia
Philippines
During the Macapagal administration in the early 1960s, a limited land reform program was initiated in Central Luzon covering rice fields.
During the martial law era of the Ferdinand Marcos Administration, Presidential Decree 27, signed in 1972, instituted a land reform program covering less than 14% of cultivated lands.[130] Rice and corn production under this land reform program was supported by the Marcos Administration with land distribution and financing program known as the Masagana 99 and other production loans that briefly increased in rice and corn production. Costly subsidies and a faulty credit scheme led to the program benefiting only 3.7% of the country's small rice farmers by 1980.[131][132] General Order 47 and Presidential Decree 472 were signed in 1974 to launch corporate farming programs that undermined the land reform program.[130]
The Corazon Aquino Administration in the mid-1980s instituted a very controversial land reform known as the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP), which covered all agricultural lands. The program led to rice shortages in the succeeding years and lasted for 20 years without accomplishing the goal of land distribution. The program caused entrepreneurs to stay away from agriculture and a number of productive farmers left the farming sector. The CARP was a monumental failure in terms of cost to the government and the landowners whose lands were subjective to legal landgrabbing by the government. CARP expired at the end of December 2008.[133]
Thailand
Thailand first spoke of land reform after the Siamese revolution of 1932 by Pridi Banomyong,[134] but was seen as a communist idea. And it was mentioned again after the 1973 Thai popular uprising, resulting in the drafting and promulgation the Agricultural Land Reform Act of 1975[135] and the Agricultural Land Reform Office was established on March 6, 1975. under the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
Vietnam
In the years after
South Vietnam made several further attempts in the post-
Summary table
The following table summarizes many land reforms that are not mentioned in this page. The color in the "Year" column is darker for earlier periods and brighter for later periods.
Region/place | Reformer | Year | Ideology / motivations | Actions | Outcomes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Middle East: Egypt | Joseph | −1500 | Monarchism
|
|
Egyptian peasants became serfs of Pharaoh |
Middle East: Egypt | Bakenranef | −720 | Social Justice
|
|
Bakenranef murdered, reforms undone |
Europe: Greece / Athens | Solon | −575 | Stabilization
|
|
poverty somewhat alleviated |
Europe: Greece / Athens | Peisistratos |
−560 | Centralization
|
|
Athenian aristocracy weakened, poverty somewhat reduced |
Europe: Greece / Sparta | Agis IV, | −244– −227 | Centralization
|
|
Reformer kings murdered by opponents, reforms undone |
Europe: Italy / Rome | Gracchi brothers |
−133– −121 | Social Justice
|
|
Reformer tribunes murdered by Senate, reforms undone |
Europe: Austria / Habsburg monarchy | Maria Theresa and Joseph II | 1680–1790 | Enlightenment
|
Freedom to peasants
|
nobles did not cooperate and laws were not enforced |
Europe: France / Savoy | Victor Amadeus II | 1720–1793 | Economics
|
Freedom to peasants
|
All estates were at least partially emancipated |
Europe: Prussia | various | 1763–1850 | Economics
|
Freedom to peasants from serfdom duties
|
nobles bought much more land than peasants |
Europe: Italy / Sicily | various | 1773–1865 | Enlightenment
|
Nationalize noble lands
|
The rich bought most lands and became richer; the Sicilian Mafia was born. |
Europe: Austria / Austrian empire |
Constituent Assembly | 1849 | Enlightenment
|
Freedom to peasants; subsidized purchase of their lands | feudal law abolished, but most land remained concentrated with the nobles |
Latin America: Mexico | Miguel Lerdo, Porfirio Díaz | 1856–1910 | Liberalism and economics | Forced sale of corporately held property, specifically lands held by the Catholic Church and indigenous communities. | Changed the nature of land tenure in Mexico. Most native-owned land was acquired by large estates. 95% of villages lost their lands. |
Europe: Russia / Russian empire | Alexander II | 1861 | Enlightenment
|
Freedom to peasants; subsidized purchase of their lands | More than 23 million people received their liberty, but many of them received land insufficient for survival and became proletariat |
Europe: Britain / Ireland |
William Ewart Gladstone, UK government | 1870–1922 | Social justice
|
Land transfer from large English landlords to their Irish tenants, funded by UK government | By 1922, over 90% of lands had been transferred |
Europe: Russia / Russian empire |
Stolypin | 1906–1916 | Economics
|
|
Private land holdings increased, but reforms were reversed after Soviet revolution |
Latin America: Mexico (after revolution) | Álvaro Obregón, Lázaro Cárdenas | 1910–1940 | Social justice
|
|
Reversed the process of land concentration, reduced the power and legitimacy of the landlord class. Much land was allocated to peasants. Production increased. |
Europe: Russia / Soviet union | Lenin | 1917 | Communism
|
|
Private land holdings increased, but reforms were reversed after Soviet revolution |
Europe: Albania / Albania | Post-WW2 government | 1946 | Social justice
|
Constitutional Reforms
|
By 1954, more than 90% of land was held in small and mid-sized farms. |
Southeast Asia: Philippines | various | 1946–2014 | Social justice
|
|
Some lands were distributed to landless peasants, but agricultural production suffered. |
East Asia: Taiwan | Y.C. James Yen |
1950s | Modernization
|
Established the JCRR
|
The JCRR is credited with laying the agricultural basis for Taiwan's outstanding economic growth in the following decades |
Middle East: Egypt | Nasser | 1952–1961 | Social justice
|
|
15% of arable land redistributed; reforms undone after change of government |
Southeast Asia: Vietnam / North | Hồ Chí Minh |
1953–1956 | Communism
|
|
Thousands were killed, and 1 million people fled to the South |
Latin America: Guatemala |
Jacobo Árbenz |
1953–1954 | Social justice
|
|
The reform itself was successful, but a later US-backed coup reversed it entirely. |
Latin America: Bolivia | Víctor Paz EstenssoroEvo Morales | 1953–2006 | Social justice
|
|
By 1970, 45% of peasant families had received title to land. The reform goes on. |
Europe: Albania / Albania | Enver Hoxha | 1958–1962 | Communism
|
|
By 1971, independent family farms had virtually disappeared |
Latin America: Cuba |
Che Guevara | 1959–1963 | Communism |
|
Peasants were given land rights, but these rights are constrained by government production quotas and a prohibition of real estate transactions |
South Asia: India | Hare Krishna Konar, E. M. S. Namboodiripad and others | 1961– | Economics
|
|
In parts of India redistribution of land became more equitable; in other parts, people found loopholes in ceiling laws. |
Latin America: Chile | Jorge Alessandri[citation needed] | 1962–1973 | Social justice
|
|
After the 1973 coup the process was halted and somewhat reversed by the coup
|
Southeast Asia: Vietnam / South | Nguyen Van Thieu |
1970 | Social welfare
|
|
Land was redistributed, but law became meaningless 5 years later at the fall of Saigon. |
Africa: Ethiopia | DERG | 1975 | Social justice
|
|
End of feudal law, strengthening of peasants |
Oceania: Australia |
various | 1976–2004 | Social justice
|
|
Large lands have been returned to Aboriginals |
Europe: Albania / Albania | Post-communist government | 1991 | Privatization
|
|
Land was privatized. |
Europe: Russia / Russian Federation | GorbachevYeltsinPutin | 1989–2001 | Privatization
|
|
Private ownership gradually increased, but became centralized into the hands of Russian oligarchs |
Latin America: Venezuela | Hugo Chávez | 2001–2003 | Social justice
|
|
60K families received land title |
Europe: Britain / Scotland |
Scottish Parliament | 2003 | Social justice
|
|
End of feudal law |
See also
- Anti-globalization movement
- Communism
- Eminent domain
- Georgism
- Homestead principle
- Inclosure
- Land Banking
- Land claim
- Land reform
- Land Reform in Developing Countries
- Land rights
- Land value tax
- Landless Workers Movement
- Open field system
- Restitution
- Squatter
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