Lycia
Lycia Lukka Likya 𐊗𐊕𐊐𐊎𐊆𐊖 (Trm̃mis) Λυκία (Lykia) | |
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Ancient Region of Anatolia | |
Asia Minor in the Greco-Roman period. The classical regions, including Lycia, and their main settlements |
Lycia (
Lycia was populated by speakers of
The many cities in Lycia were wealthy as shown by their elaborate architecture starting at least from the 5th century BC and extending to the Roman period.
Lycia fought for the Persians in the
On defeating
Despite home rule, Lycia was not a sovereign state and had not been since its defeat by the Carians. In 43 AD the Roman emperor Claudius dissolved the league, and Lycia was incorporated into the Roman Empire with provincial status. It became an eparchy of the Eastern, or Byzantine Empire, continuing to speak Greek even after being joined by communities of Turkish language speakers in the early 2nd millennium. After the fall of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century, Lycia was under the Ottoman Empire, and was inherited by the Turkish Republic on the Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.
Geography
The borders of Lycia varied over time, but at its centre was the Teke peninsula of southwestern Turkey, which juts southward into the Mediterranean Sea, bounded on the west by the Gulf of Fethiye, and on the east by the Gulf of Antalya. Lycia comprised what is now the westernmost portion of Antalya Province, the easternmost portion of Muğla Province, and the southernmost portion of Burdur Province. In ancient times the surrounding districts were, from west to east, Caria, Pisidia, and Pamphylia, all equally as ancient, and each speaking its own Anatolian language.
The name of the Teke Peninsula comes from the former name of Antalya Province, which was
Physical geography
Four ridges extend from northeast to southwest, roughly, forming the western extremity of the
The next ridge to the east is Akdağlari, 'the White Mountains', about 150 km (93 mi) long, with a high point at Uyluktepe, "Uyluk Peak", of 3,024 m (9,921 ft). This massif may have been ancient Mount Cragus. Along its western side flows Eşen Çayi, "the Esen River", anciently the Xanthos, Lycian Arñna, originating in the Boncuk Mountains, flowing south, and transecting the several-mile-long beach at Patara. The Xanthos Valley was the country called Tŗmmis in dynastic Lycia, from which the people were the Termilae or Tremilae, or Kragos in the coin inscriptions of Greek Lycia: Kr or Ksan Kr. The name of western Lycia was given by Charles Fellows to it and points of Lycia west of it.
The next ridge to the east, Beydağlari, 'the Bey Mountains', peaks at Kizlarsevrisi, 3,086 m (10,125 ft), the highest point of the Teke Peninsula. It is most likely the ancient Masicytus range. Between Beydağlari and Akdağlari is an upland plateau, Elmali, where ancient Milyas was located. The elevation of the town of Elmali, which means 'Apple Town,' from the density of fruit-bearing groves in the region, is 1,100 m (3,600 ft), which is the highest part of the valley below it. Fellows considered the valley to be central Lycia.
The Akçay, or 'White River', the ancient Aedesa, brought water from the slopes to the plain, where it pooled in two lakes below the town, Karagöl and Avlangöl. Currently the two lakes are dry, the waters being captured on an ongoing basis by irrigation systems for the trees. The Aedesa once drained the plain through a chasm to the east, but now flows entirely through pipelines covering the same route, but emptying into the water supplies of Arycanda and Arif. An effort has been made to restore some of the cedar forests cleared in antiquity.[3]
The easternmost ridge extends along the east coast of the Teke Peninsula, and is called, generally, Tahtali Dağlari, "The Tahtali Mountains." The high point within them is Tahtali Dağ, elevation 2,366 m (7,762 ft), dubbed "Mount Olympus" in antiquity by the Greeks, remembering
Through the
Demography
There are at least 381 ancient settlements in the broader region of Lycia-Pamphylia, with the vast majority of these in Lycia.[5] These are situated either along the coastal strip in the protecting coves or on the slopes and hills of the mountain ranges. They are often difficult to access, which in ancient times was a defensive feature. The rugged coastline favored well-defended ports from which, in troubled times, Lycian pirate fleets sallied forth.
The principal cities of ancient Lycia were
Features and sights of interest
Although the 2nd-century BC dialogue
Turkey's first
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Telmessos rock tomb. The sign on site says the tombs date from about 400 BC
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Rock-cut tombs in Myra
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Ogival rock-cut tomb at Pinara, 4th century BC
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Ancient Lycian tomb in Kaş
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The Tomb of Amyntas in Fethiye
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Ancient Greek theater atOinoanda
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Lycian tomb in Kaş
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Lycian tomb in Fethiye
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Lycian tomb in Kastellorizo
Ancient language
The eponymous inhabitants of Lycia, the
At about 535 BC, before the first appearance of attested Lycian, the Achaemenid Empire overran Lycia. Despite its resistance, because of which the population of Xanthos was decimated, Lycia became part of the Persian Empire. The first coins with Lycian letters on them appeared not long before 500 BC.[9] Lycia prospered under a monarchy set up by the Persians. Subsequently, the Lycians were verbose in stone, carving memorial, historical and governmental inscriptions. Not all of these can yet be entirely understood, due to remaining ignorance of the language. The term "dynastic period" is used. If the government was any sort of federal democracy, there is no evidence of it, as the term "dynastic" suggests.
Lycia hosted a small enclave of Dorian Greeks for some centuries and Rhodes was mainly inhabited by Dorians at the time. After the defeat of the Persians by the Greeks, Lycia became open to further Greek settlement. During this period, inscriptions in Lycian diminished, while those in Greek multiplied. Complete assimilation to Greek occurred sometime in the 4th century, after Lycia had come under the control of Alexander the Great and his fellow Macedonians.[11] There is no agreement yet on which inscription in the Lycian language is the very last, but nothing dated after the year 300 BC has yet been found.
Subsequently, the Lycians were vassalized by the Roman Republic, which allowed the Lycians home rule under their own language, which at that point was Greek. Lycia continued to exist as a vassal state under the Roman Empire until its final division after the death of Theodosius I at which point it became a part of the Byzantine Empire under Arcadius. After the fall of the Byzantines in the 15th century, Lycia fell under the control of the Ottoman Empire; Turkish colonization of the area soon followed. Turkish and Greek settlements existed side-by-side, each speaking their own language.
All Greek-speaking enclaves in Anatolia were exchanged for Turkish speakers in Greece during the final settlement of the border with Greece at the beginning of the
History
Bronze Age
During the
The Lukka lands were never a unified kingdom, instead having a decentralized political structure. Archaeological remains of the Lukka people are sparse. The Lukka people were famously fractious, with Hittite and Egyptian records describing them as raiders, rebels, and pirates. Lukka people fought against the Hittites as part of the
Dynastic period
Acquisition by Cyrus the Great (circa 540 BC)
Herodotus writes more credibly of contemporaneous events, especially where they concerned his native land. Asia Minor had been partly conquered by
Arriving at the southern coast of Anatolia in 546 BC, the army of Harpagus encountered no problem with the Carians and their immediate Greek neighbors and alien populations, who submitted peacefully. In the Xanthos Valley an army of Xanthian Greeks sallied out to meet them, fighting determinedly, although vastly outnumbered. Driven into the citadel, they collected all their property, dependents and slaves into a central building, and burned them up. Then, after taking an oath not to surrender, they died to a man fighting the Persians, foreshadowing and perhaps setting an example for Spartan conduct at the Battle of Thermopylae a few generations later.
Archaeological evidence indicates there was a major fire on the acropolis of Xanthos in the mid-6th century BC but, as Antony Keen points out, there is no way to connect that fire with the event presented by Herodotus. It might have been another fire.[18] The Caunians, says Herodotus, followed a similar example immediately after.[19] If there was an attempt by any of the states of Lycia to join forces, as happened in Greece 50 years later, there is no record of it, suggesting that no central government existed. Each country awaited its own fate alone.
Herodotus also says or implies that 80 Xanthian families were away at the time, perhaps with the herd animals in alpine summer pastures (pure speculation), but helped repopulate the place. However, he reports, the Xanthians of his time were mainly descended from non-Xanthians. Looking for any nuance that might shed light on the repopulation of Xanthos, Keen interprets Herodotus' "those Lycians who now say that they are Xanthians" to mean that Xanthos was repopulated by other Lycians (and not by Iranians or other foreigners).[20] Herodotus said nothing of the remainder of Lycia; presumably, that is true because they submitted without further incident. Lycia was well populated and flourished as a Persian satrapy; moreover, they spoke mainly Lycian.
The Harpagid theory
The Harpagid Theory was initiated by
To the inscriptions of the Xanthian Obelisk were added those of the Letoon trilingual, which gave a sequel, as it were, to the names on the obelisk. Studies of coin legends, initiated by Fellows, went on. Currently, most (but not all) of the Harpagid Theory has been rejected. The Achaemenids utilized no permanent satrapies; the political circumstances changed too often. The conqueror of new lands was seldom made their satrap; he went on to other conquests. It was not the Persian custom to grant hereditary satrapies; satrap was only a step in the cursus honorum. And finally, a destitute mountain country would have been a poor reward for Cyrus' best general.[20] The main evidence against the Harpagid Theory (as Keen calls it) is the reconstruction of the name of the Xanthian Obelisk's deceased as Lycian Kheriga, Greek Gergis (Nereid Monument), a king reigning approximately 440–410 BC, over a century later than the conqueror of Lycia.
The next logical possibility is that Kheriga's father, Arppakhu, was a descendant of the conqueror. In opposition, Keen reconstructs the dynastic sequence from coin inscriptions as follows.[21] Kheriga had two grandfathers, Kuprlli and Kheriga. The younger Kheriga was the successor of Kuprlli. The latter's son, therefore, Kheziga, who was Kheriga's uncle, must have predeceased Kuprlli. Arppakhu is listed as regnant on two other inscriptions, but he did not succeed Kuprlli. He must therefore have married a daughter of Kuprlli, and have also predeceased the long-lived Kuprlli. The latter then was too old to reign de facto. On the contemporaneous deaths of both him and his son-in-law, Kheriga, named after his paternal grandfather, acquired the throne.
Kuprlli was the first king recorded for certain (there was an earlier possible) in the coin legends. He reigned approximately 480–440. Harpagos was not related by blood. The conqueror, therefore, was not the founder of the line, which was not Harpagid. An Iranian family, however, producing some other Harpagids, did live in Lycia and was of sufficient rank to marry the king's daughter. As to whether the Iranian family were related to any satrap, probably not. Herodotus said that Satrapy 1 (the satrapies were numbered) consisted of Ionia, Magnesia, Aeolia, Caria, Lycia, Milya, and Pamphylia, who together paid a tax of 400 silver talents. This satrapy was later broken up and recombined.[22] Keen hypothesizes that since Caria had responsibility for the King's Highway through Lycia, Lycia and Caria were a satrapy.[23]
The Lycian monarchy
The
For closer attention to their conquered, the Persian government preferred to establish a
The first dynast is believed to be the person mentioned in the last line of the Greek epigram inscribed on the Xanthian Obelisk, which says "this monument has brought glory to the family (genos) of ka[]ika," which has a letter missing. It is probably not *karikas, for Kherika, as the latter is translated in the Letoon trilingual as Gergis. A more likely possibility is *kasikas for Kheziga, the same as Kheriga's uncle, the successor to Kuprlli, who predeceased him.[31]
Herodotus mentioned that the leader of the Lycian fleet under
There is a gap, however, between him and Kuprlli, who should have had a father named the same as his son, Kheziga. The name Kubernis does not appear again. Keen suggests that
Greek Name | Lycian "Kings" (at Xanthos) | Local Lycian rulers | Coinage | Status | Date BC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre-dynastic period (c.540–c.530 BC) | Initial Achaemenid control since circa 542/539 BC.[36] | c.540–c.530 | |||
Kosikas | Kheziga I | First of the line. | c.525 | ||
Kubernis |
KUB | Second in succession, son of the former. | c.520–480 | ||
Kosikas | Kheziga II | Third in succession, unknown relative (possibly son of Kheziga I ?). | fl. c.500 | ||
? | Kuprlli (ΚΟ𐊓, pronounced "coupe") | Kuprlli, son of Kheziga II, was fourth in succession. First monarch identifiable through coin legends. | 480–c.440 | ||
During Kuprlli's long reign at least a dozen local Lycian rulers started to mint their own coins,[37] among them Teththiweibi: | |||||
Teththiweibi | c.450–430/20 | ||||
Kosikas | (Kheziga III: heir-apparent) | Son of Kuprlli, first in line to succeed him, but died young. | † c.460 | ||
Harpagus (Iranian name) | (Arppakhu: regent for Kuprlli) | Son-in-law of Kuprlli. The elderly Kuprlli, when he became incapacitated, remained nominal king, but real power rested with Arpakkhu as his regent.[38] | fl. c.450 | ||
Gergis | Kheriga | Fifth in succession, son of Arppakhu. Probably regent for Kuprlli in his last years, after his death Kheriga became king himself. | c.440-c.410 | ||
? | Kherei | Sixth in succession, brother of Kheriga. | c.410–c.390 | ||
Arbinas (Iranian name) | Erbbina | Seventh in succession, son of Kheriga. The last known of the line. | c.390–c.380 | ||
Artembares (Iranian name, *Rtambura, self-identified as "the Mede.") | Arttum̃para | Ruler of western Lycia from Telmessos. Ousted by Perikle. | c.380–c.360 | ||
Mithrapata | Mithrapata | Ruler in eastern Lycia. | c.390–c.370 | ||
Pericles (Greek name) | Perikle | At first ruler of eastern Lycia from Limyra, then victor over Arttum̃para, rebel in the Revolt of the Satraps , last Lycian king. |
c.360 |
Classical period
Ally of Athens in the Delian League (c. 470–430 BC)
Following the Achaemenid defeat in the
As the power of Athens weakened and Athens and Sparta fought the
Renewed Achaemenid control (c. 430–333 BC)
The Lycians once again fell under Persian domination, and by 412 BC, Lycia is documented as fighting on the winning side of Persia. The Persian
The last known dynast of Lycia was
After Perikles, Persian rule was reestablished firmly in Lycia in 366 or 362 BC. Control was taken by
Lycia was also ruled by men such as
During the Alexander the Great period, Nearchus was appointed viceroy of Lycia and of the land adjacent to it as far as mount Taurus.[48]
- Dynastic portraiture on coinage
Although many of the first
-
Coin of the dynast of Lycia,Persian capon the reverse. 410–390 BC.
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Dynast Arbinas, in Persian dress, receiving emissaries. Scene from the upper podium frieze of the Nereid Monument, c. 380 BC.
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Portrait of Lycian ruler Mithrapata (ruled 390–370 BC).
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Coin of Perikles, last king of Lycia. Circa 380–360 BC.
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"Lycian sarcophagus of Sidon", Sidon, end of 5th century BC.
Hellenistic period (333–168 BC)
After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, his generals fought amongst themselves over the succession. Lycia fell into the hands of the general Antigonus by 304 BC. In 301 BC Antigonus was killed by an alliance of the other successors of Alexander, and Lycia became a part of the kingdom of Lysimachus, who ruled until he was killed in battle in 281 BC.[53]
Control then passed to the Ptolemaic Kingdom, centre on Egypt.
It had apparently come under
In 181 BC, at the end of the
Lycian League
City | Votes |
---|---|
Xanthos | 3 |
Patara | 3 |
Myra | 3 |
Pinara | 3 |
Tlos | 3 |
Olympos |
3 |
Sympolity of Aperlae, Simena, Isinda, Apollonia |
1 |
Amelas | ? |
Antiphellus | ? |
Arycanda | ? |
Balbura | ? |
Bubon | ? |
Cyaneae | ? |
Dias | ? |
Gagae | ? |
Idebessos | ? |
Limyra | ? |
Oenoanda | ? |
Phaselis | ? |
Phellus | ? |
Podalia | ? |
Rhodiapolis | ? |
Sidyma | ? |
Telmessus |
? |
Trebenna | ? |
The Lycian league of independent city-states was the first such democratic union in history and the league remained strong in spite of the mountainous terrain, invasions of foreign powers and attempts of tyrants to take power.
Formation
The Lycian League (Lykiakon systema in Strabo's Greek transliterated, a "standing together") is first known from two inscriptions of the early 2nd century BC in which it honors two citizens.[58] Bryce hypothesizes that it was formed as an agent to convince Rome to rescind the annexation of Lycia to Rhodes. It is not known for certain whether it was formed before or after Lycia was removed from Rhodian control. According to Livy, the consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus put Lycia under Rhodian control in 190 BC. He wrote that a Lycian embassy complained about the cruel tyranny of the Rhodians and that when they were under king Antiochus III the Great they had been in liberty in comparison. It was slavery, rather that just political oppression: "they, their wives and children were the victims of violence; their oppressors vented their rage on their persons and their backs, their good name was besmirched and dishonoured, their condition rendered detestable in order that their tyrants might openly assert a legal right over them and reduce them to the status of slaves bought with money.. the senate gave them a letter to and to the Rhodians that ...it was not the pleasure of the senate that either the Lycians or any other men born free should be handed over as slaves to the Rhodians or any one else. The Lycians possessed the same rights under the suzerainty and protection of Rhodes that friendly states possessed under the suzerainty of Rome."[59]
Polybius wrote that the Romans sent envoys to Rhodes to say that "the Lycians had not been handed over to Rhodes as a gift, but to be treated like friends and allies."[60] The Rhodians claimed that king Eumenes of Pergamon had stirred up the Lycians against them.[61] In 169 BC, during the Third Macedonian War, the relationship between Rome and Rhodes became strained and the Roman senate issued a decree which gave the Carians and the Lycians their freedom.[62] Polybius recorded a decree “freeing” the Carians and Lycians in 168–7 BC.[63]
Strabo wrote that there were twenty-three cities which came together for a general assembly and had a share in its votes "after choosing whatever city they approve of". The last statement is unclear. The largest cities had three votes, the medium-sized ones two, and the rest one. He noted that the League did not have freedom over matters of war and peace: "Formerly they deliberated about war and peace, and alliances, but this is not now permitted, as these things are under the control of the Romans. It is only done by their consent, or when it may be for their own advantage." However, they had the freedom to choose a Lyciarch as the head of the league and to designate general courts. He also noted "since they lived under such a good government, they remained ever free under the Romans, thus retaining their ancestral usages [i.e ancestral laws and customs]."[64]
Composition
Strabo wrote that according to a source the six largest were
In 81 BC
Roman period
Lycia was granted autonomy as a protectorate of Rome in 168 BC and remained so until becoming a Roman province in 43 AD under Claudius.[69]
When Rome got involved in the eastern Mediterranean the Lycians allied with Rome. An inscription found in Tyberissos provides the first record of such an alliance treaty (foedus). The dating is uncertain. It precedes the treaty of 46 BC (see below) and could go back to the second or first century BC. The context in which this treaty was made in unknown. It could have been concluded during the expansionist moves by
An inscription found on a statue-base found in Thespiae attests that in 46 BC Julius Caesar signed a treaty with the Lycian league. It had nine articles. The first article stipulated "Friendship, alliance and peace both by land and sea in perpetuity "Let the Lycians observe the power and preeminence of the Romans as is proper in all circumstances." The other articles stipulated: 2) Neutrality of each party to the other's enemy; 3) mutual help in case of an attack on either party; 4) anyone charged with import or export of contraband goods was to be charged by the highest official of the two parties; 5) Romans accused of a capital crime in Lycia were to be judged in Rome by her own laws and Lycians accused of these crimes were to be judged in Lycia by her own laws; 6) Romans in a dispute with Lycians were to be judged in Lycia according to her own laws, if Lycians were brought to court by Romans the case was to be heard by whatever official the disputants chose for the case to be dealt with justly; 7) No person was to be taken as a surety, Roman and Lycian war prisoners were to be returned to their own countries, captured horses, slaves or ships were to be restored; 8) named cities, ports and territories which were restored to the Lycians were to belong to them; 9) both parties agreed to abide by the terms of this oath and the treaty. Details could be amended if both parties agreed.[71]
In 43 AD the emperor Claudius annexed Lycia. Cassius Dio wrote that Claudius ‘reduced the Lycians to servitude because they had revolted and slain some Romans and he incorporated them in the prefecture of Pamphylia." He also provided some details of the investigation of this affair conducted in the senate.[72] Suetonius wrote that Claudius "deprived the Lycians of their independence because of deadly intestine feuds."[73] In an inscription found at Perge which has been dated to late 46/early 45 BC the Lycians, who described themselves as 'faithful allies’, praised Claudius for freeing them from disturbances, lawlessness and brigandage and for the restoration of the ancestral laws. It makes a reference to the transfer of power from the multitude to the councillors, selected from among the best. Therefore, it seems that there might have been a revolutionary popular uprising which could have overturned the established order. The annexation of Lycia seems to fit the common reason for annexing Roman client states or allies in this period: the loss on stability due to internal strife or, in some cases, the weakening or end of a ruling dynasty. The restoration of ancestral law was probably linked to the Roman practice of respecting and guaranteeing the ancestral laws, customs and privileges of city-states or leagues of city-states it made alliance agreements with in the eastern Mediterranean. Lycia was annexed, but the Lycian League was retained as so were self-governance regarding most local matters according to local traditional laws and the League's authority over local courts. The treaty concluded by Caesar in 46 BC had already established a framework for the distinction of judicial areas under the competence of the Lycian League and those under the Roman praetor peregrino (chief justice for foreigners) and could be used to define the assignment of legal areas between the Roman provincial governor and the League. The Romans re-established stability in Lycia and retained friendly relations with the Lycians and Lycian rights to their traditional laws, customs and privileges.[74]
In 74 AD the emperor
Byzantine era
During the Byzantine period Lycia and Pamphylia came under the command of the
Turkish era
Lycia was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire and eventually became part of Turkey. After World War I, Lycia was assigned to the kingdom of Italy according to the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres and occupied for a few years, but in 1923 was assigned to Turkey.[78]
During this period, Lycia hosted both Turkish and Greek communities. The substantial Christian community of Greeks lived in Lycia until the 1920s, when they were forced to migrate to Greece after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey following the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922).[79] The abandoned Greek villages in the region are a striking reminder of this exodus. Abandoned Greek houses can still be seen in the region, and Kaya is a Greek ghost town.[79] A small population of Turkish farmers moved into the region when the Lycian Greeks migrated.[79] The region is now one of the key centres of domestic and foreign tourism in Turkey.
In Greek mythology
According to
In
Lycia appears elsewhere in Greek myth, such as in the story of
See also
- Ancient regions of Anatolia
- Lycian peasants
- Lycian script
- Saint Gerasimus of the Jordan, 5th-century Christian saint born in Lycia
- Saint Nicholas, Christian saint said to have been born in Patara, Lycia
- Saint Christopher, Christian saint said to have been of the region of Lycia
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The Lydian tombs at Pinara and Xanthos, on the south-coast of Asia Minor, were excavated like the early Indian rock-hewn chaitya-hall.
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- ^ Hill 1897, p. xxiii.
- ^ Barraclough 2003, p. [page needed].
- ^ Derow, Peter; Christopher John Smith; Liv Mariah Yarrow (2012). Imperialism, cultural politics, and polybius. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 136.
- ^ "Roman-Lycian Friendship and Reciprocal Military Alliance 46 AD". Lycian Turkey - Discover the Beauty of Ancient Lycia. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 12 July 2016. – Note that the given date is mistaken. It should be 46 BC instead of 46 AD
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 60.17.3–4
- ^ Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars; The Life of Claudius, 23.3
- ^ Kantor, Georgy (2006). Ancestral laws under the Roman rule: The case of Lycia (PhD). Balliol College, University of Oxford.
- ^ Şahin, S. and M. Adak, Stadiasmus Patarensis. Itinera Romana Provinciae Lyciae. İstanbul 2007; F. Onur, Two Procuratorian Inscriptions from Perge, Gephyra 5 (2008), 53–66.
- ^ Syme R., Pamphylia from Augustus to Vespasian, ibid., XXX, 1937, pp. 227–231
- ^ Mommsen, Theodore, A History of Rome Under the Emperors, p. 107
- ^ "Treaty of Sevres". 10 August 2015.
- ^ ISBN 9780902743342.
The Lycians were essentially Greeks so they were moved to Greece, leaving a small population of Turkish farmers to move in behind them. The Greek ghost town of Kaya in the hills behind Fethiye is the most dramatic reminder of this exodus, but derelict Greek houses can also be seen at Kalkan, Kas and Demre.
- ^ Herod. vii. 77; Strab. xiv. p. 667; Plin. v. 25, 42.
- ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s. v. Pisidia
- ^ Etymologicum Magnum, 721. 43, under Solymoi
- ^ Antimachus in scholia on Homer, Odyssey, 5. 283
- Rufinus of Aquileia, Recognitiones, 10. 21
- ^ Herodotus, The Histories, 1.173.
Sources
Primary sources
- "Poem on the Battle of Kadesh" 305–313, Ramesses II
- "Great Karnak Inscription" 572–592, Merneptah
- Breasted, J. H. 1906. Ancient Records of Egypt. Vol. III. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- "Plague Prayers of Mursilis" A1–11, b, Mursilis
- Pritchard, J. B. 1969. Ancient Near Eastern Texts. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- ISBN 978-0806128948.
Secondary sources
- Auerbach, Jeffrey; Hoffenberg, Peter (2013). Britain, the Empire, and the World at the Great Exhibition of 1851. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1409480082.
- Bryce, T.; Zahle, J. (1986). The Lycians. Vol. 1. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. – Covers the Lycians and where they lived, their history, language, culture, cults, and their language.
- Hill, George Francis (1897). "Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Lycia, Pamphylia, and Pisidia". A Catalogue of the Greek Coins in the British Museum. London: Trustees of the British Museum. – A presentation of the history of Lycia during the time of its minting coins, and the coins.
- Keen, Antony G. (1998) [1992]. Dynastic Lycia: A Political History of the Lycians & Their Relations with Foreign Powers, c. 545 – 362 BC. Mnemosyne: bibliotheca classica Batavia. Supplementum. Leiden; Boston; Köln: Brill. ISBN 9004109560.
- OCLC 582161294.
Further reading
- Barnett, R. D. (1975). "The Sea Peoples". In J. B. Bury; S. A. Cook; F. E. Adcock (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. II, part 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Pressbarne. pp. 362–366. – Refers to many different sea peoples and their contact with Egypt and Anatolia. Also tells about the Philistines during the reign of Ramesses III.
- ) and where they inhabited.
- Drews, R. (1995). The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 B.C. Princeton: Princeton University Press. – A description of the Egyptian evidence on the Sea Peoples.
- Jacobson MJ, Pickett J, Gascoigne AL, Fleitmann D, Elton H (2022) Settlement, environment, and climate change in SW Anatolia: Dynamics of regional variation and the end of Antiquity. PLoS ONE 17(6): e0270295. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0270295
- Kılıç Aslan, Selen (2023). Lycian families in the Hellenistic and Roman periods. A regional study of inscriptions: towards a social and legal framework. Leiden; Boston: Brill. ISBN 9789004548411.
External links
- Satyurek, Patty; Satyurek, Kemal. "Lycian Turkey". lycianturkey.com. Archived from the original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
- Walker, Christopher; Anderson, Thorne (Photographer) (September–October 2007). "Splendid Ruins for an 'Excellent Republic'". Saudi Aramco World.
- Foss, Pedar W. "Lycia". Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces (ERP). Archived from the original on 26 February 2012.
- "Virtual Tours / Myra, Mahmutlar, Lara (Turkey)". EDS Systems. Fullscreen panoramas of the rock-cut tombs of the ancient Lycian necropolis at Myra
- "Virtual Tour—Demre. Myra (Lycia)". Alexander Peskov Photography. 2011.
- Clow, Kate. "Lycian Way guidebook". Retrieved 3 May 2017.
- Map of the Roman state according to the Compilation notitia dignitatum