Names of China

The names of China include the many contemporary and historical designations given in various languages for the East Asian country known as 中国; 中國; Zhōngguó; 'Central state', 'Middle kingdom' in Standard Chinese, a form based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin.

The English name "China" was borrowed from Portuguese during the 16th century, and its direct cognates became common in the subsequent centuries in the West.^[2] It is believed to be a borrowing from Middle Persian, and some have traced it further back to the Sanskrit word चीन (cīna) for the nation. It is also thought that the ultimate source of the name China is the Chinese word 秦; Qín, the name of the Qin dynasty that ultimately unified China after existing as a state within the Zhou dynasty for many centuries prior. However, there are alternative suggestions for the etymology of this word.

Chinese names for China, aside from Zhongguo, include

There are also names for China used around the world that are derived from the languages of ethnic groups other than Han Chinese: examples include "Cathay" from the Khitan language, and Tabgach from Tuoba.

Sinitic names

Zhongguo

Pre-Qing

中國; Zhōngguó is the most common Chinese name for China in modern times. The earliest appearance of this two-character term is on the bronze vessel He zun (dating to 1038–c. 1000 BCE), during the early Western Zhou period. The phrase "zhong guo" came into common usage in the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), when it referred to the "Central States," the states of the Yellow River Valley of the Zhou era, as distinguished from the tribal periphery.^[3] In later periods, however, Zhongguo was not used in this sense. Dynastic names were used for the state in Imperial China, and concepts of the state aside from the ruling dynasty were little understood.^[2] Rather, the country was called by the name of the dynasty, such as "Han", "Tang", "Great Ming", "Great Qing", etc. Until the 19th century, when the international system began to require common legal language, there was no need for a fixed or unique name.^[4]

As early as the

From the Qin to the Ming dynasty, literati discussed Zhongguo as both a historical place or territory and as a culture. Writers of the Ming period in particular used the term as a political tool to express opposition to expansionist policies that incorporated foreigners into the empire.^[21] In contrast foreign conquerors typically avoided discussions of Zhongguo and instead defined membership in their empires to include both Han and non-Han peoples.^[22]

Qing

Zhongguo appeared in a formal international legal document for the first time during the Qing dynasty in the Treaty of Nerchinsk, 1689. The term was then used in communications with other states and in treaties. The Manchu rulers incorporated Inner Asian polities into their empire, and Wei Yuan, a statecraft scholar, distinguished the new territories from Zhongguo, which he defined as the 17 provinces of "China proper" plus the Manchu homelands in the Northeast. By the late 19th century the term had emerged as a common name for the whole country. The empire was sometimes referred to as Great Qing but increasingly as Zhongguo (see the discussion below).^[23]

Dulimbai Gurun is the

When the Qing

Elena Barabantseva also noted that the Manchu referred to all subjects of the Qing empire regardless of ethnicity as "Chinese" (中國之人; Zhōngguó zhī rén; 'China's person'), and used the term (中國; Zhōngguó) as a synonym for the entire Qing empire while using 漢人; Hànrén) to refer only to the core area of the empire, with the entire empire viewed as multiethnic.^[42]

Joseph W. Esherick noted that while the Qing Emperors governed frontier non-Han areas in a different, separate system under the Lifanyuan and kept them separate from Han areas and administration, it was the Manchu Qing Emperors who expanded the definition of Zhongguo and made it "flexible" by using that term to refer to the entire Empire and using that term to other countries in diplomatic correspondence, while some Han Chinese subjects criticized their usage of the term and the Han literati Wei Yuan used Zhongguo only to refer to the seventeen provinces of China and three provinces of the east (Manchuria), excluding other frontier areas.^[44] Due to Qing using treaties clarifying the international borders of the Qing state, it was able to inculcate in the Chinese people a sense that China included areas such as Mongolia and Tibet due to education reforms in geography, which made it clear where the borders of the Qing state were, even if they didn't understand how the Chinese identity included Tibetans and Mongolians or what the connotations of being Chinese were.^[45] The English version of the 1842 Treaty of Nanking refers to "His Majesty the Emperor of China" while the Chinese refers both to "The Great Qing Emperor" (Da Qing Huangdi) and to Zhongguo as well. The 1858 Treaty of Tientsin has similar language.^[4]

In the late 19th century, the reformer

Before the signing of the Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty in 1871, the first treaty between Qing China and the Empire of Japan, Japanese representatives once raised objections to China's use of the term Zhongguo in the treaty (partly in response to China's earlier objections for the term Tennō or Emperor of Japan to be used in the treaty), declaring that the term Zhongguo was "meant to compare with the frontier areas of the country" and insisted that only "Great Qing" be used for the Qing in the Chinese version of the treaty. However, this was firmly rejected by the Qing representatives: "Our country China has been called Zhongguo for a long time since ancient times. We have signed treaties with various countries, and while Great Qing did appear in the first lines of such treaties, in the body of the treaties Zhongguo was always being used. There has never been a precedent for changing the country name" (我中華之稱中國，自上古迄今，由來已久。即與各國立約，首書寫大清國字樣，其條款內皆稱中國，從無寫改國號之例). The Chinese representatives believed that Zhongguo (China) as a country name equivalent to "Great Qing" could naturally be used internationally, which could not be changed. In the end, both sides agreed that while in the first lines "Great Qing" would be used, whether the Chinese text in the body of the treaty would use the term Zhongguo in the same manner as "Great Qing" would be up to China's discretion.^[50][51]

Qing official Zhang Deyi once objected to the western European name "China" and said that China referred to itself as Zhonghua in response to a European who asked why Chinese used the term guizi to refer to all Europeans.^[52] However, the Qing established legations and consulates known as the "Chinese Legation," "Imperial Consulate of China," "Imperial Chinese Consulate (General)" or similar names in various countries with diplomatic relations, such as the United Kingdom and United States. Both English and Chinese terms, such as "China" and "Zhongguo," were frequently used by Qing legations and consulates there to refer to the Qing state during their diplomatic correspondences with foreign states.^[53] Moreover, the English name "China" was also used domestically by the Qing, such as in its officially released stamps since Qing set up a modern postal system in 1878. The postage stamps (known as 大龍郵票 in Chinese) had a design of a large dragon in the centre, surrounded by a boxed frame with a bilingual inscription of "CHINA" (corresponding to the Great Qing Empire in Chinese) and the local denomination "CANDARINS".^[54]

In the 20th century, after the May Fourth Movement, educated students began to spread the concept of Zhonghua, which represented the people, including 56 minority ethnic groups and the Han Chinese, with a single culture identifying themselves as "Chinese.". The Republic of China and the People's Republic of China both used Zhonghua in their official names. Thus, Zhongguo became the common name for both governments and 中國人; Zhōngguó rén for their citizens. Overseas Chinese are referred to as 华侨; 'Chinese overseas', or 华裔; 華裔; huáyì; 'Chinese descendants', i.e. Chinese children born overseas.

Middle Kingdom

The English translation of Zhongguo as the "Middle Kingdom" entered European languages through the Portuguese in the 16th century and became popular in the mid-19th century. By the mid-20th century, the term was thoroughly entrenched in the English language, reflecting the Western view of China as the inward-looking Middle Kingdom, or more accurately, the Central Kingdom or Central State. Endymion Wilkinson points out that the Chinese were not unique in thinking of their country as central, although China was the only culture to use the concept for its name.^[55] However, the term Zhongguo was not initially used as a name for China. It did not have the same meaning throughout the course of history (see above).^[56]

During the 19th century, China was alternatively (although less commonly) referred to in the west as the "Middle Flowery Kingdom",^[57] "Central Flowery Kingdom",^[58] or "Central Flowery State",^[59] translated from Zhōnghuáguó (中華國; 中华国),^[60] or simply the "Flowery Kingdom",^[61] translated from Huáguó (華國; 华国).^[62][63] However, some have since argued that such a translation (fairly commonly seen at that time) was perhaps caused by misunderstanding the Huá (華; 华) that means "China" (or "magnificent, splendid") for the Huā (花) that means "flower".^[64][65]

Huaxia

The name 华夏; 華夏; Huáxià is generally used as a sobriquet in Chinese text. Under traditional interpretations, it is the combination of two words which originally referred to the elegance of traditional Han attire and the Confucian concept of rites.

• Hua, which means "flowery beauty" (i.e., having beauty of dress and personal adornment 有服章之美，謂之華).
• Xia, which means greatness or grandeur (i.e., having greatness in social customs, courtesy, polite manners and rites/ceremony 有禮儀之大，故稱夏).^[66]

In the original sense, Huaxia refers to a confederation of tribes—living along the Yellow River—who were the ancestors of what later became the Han ethnic group in China.^{[citation needed]} During the Warring States (475–221 BCE), the self-awareness of the Huaxia identity developed and took hold in ancient China.

Zhonghua minzu

Zhonghua minzu is a term meaning "Chinese nation" in the sense of a multi-ethnic national identity. Though originally rejected by the PRC, it has been used officially since the 1980s for nationalist politics.

Tianchao and Tianxia

Tianchao (

The phrase Tianchao was first translated into English and French in the early 19th century, appearing in foreign publications and diplomatic correspondences,[68] with the translated phrase "Celestial Empire" occasionally used to refer to China. During this period, the term celestial was used by some to refer to the subjects of the Qing in a non-prejudicial manner,^[68] derived from the term "Celestial Empire". However, the term celestial was also used in a pejorative manner during the 19th century, in reference to Chinese immigrants in Australasia and North America.^[68] The translated phrase has largely fallen into disuse in the 20th century.

Jiangshan and Shanhe

The two names 江山; Jiāngshān and 山河; Shānhé, both literally 'rivers and mountains', quite similar in usage to Tianxia, simply referring to the entire world, the most prominent features of which being rivers and mountains. The use of this term is also common as part of the idiom 江山社稷; Jiāngshān shèjì; 'rivers and mountains', 'soil and grain', in a suggestion of the need to implement good governance.

Jiuzhou

The name (九州; jiǔ zhōu) means 'nine provinces'. Widely used in pre-modern Chinese text, the word originated during the middle of the Warring States period. During that time, the Yellow River region was divided into nine geographical regions; thus this name was coined. Some people also attribute this word to the mythical hero and king Yu the Great, who, in the legend, divided China into nine provinces during his reign.

Shenzhou

This name means Divine Realm^[69] or Divine Land (神州; Shénzhōu; 'divine provinces') and comes from the same period as Jiuzhou, meaning "nine provinces.". It was thought that the world was divided into nine major states, one of which is Shenzhou, which is in turn divided into nine smaller states, one of which is Jiuzhou mentioned above.

Sihai

Four Seas (四海; sìhǎi), is sometimes used to refer to the world, or simply China, which is perceived as the civilized world. It came from the ancient notion that the world is flat and surrounded by sea.

Han

The name Han (汉; 漢; Hàn) derives from the

During the Yuan dynasty, subjects of the empire were divided into four classes: Mongols, Semu Han, and "Southerns". Northern Chinese were called Han, which was considered to be the highest class of Chinese. This class, "Han," includes all ethnic groups in northern China, including Khitan and Jurchen who have, for the most part, sinicized during the last two hundreds years. The name "Han" became popularly accepted.

During the Qing, the Manchu rulers also used the name Han to distinguish the natives of the

Tang

The name Tang (

Among Taiwanese, Tang mountain (Min-Nan: Tng-soa) has been used, for example, in the saying, "has Tangshan father, no Tangshan mother" (有唐山公，無唐山媽;

In Ryukyuan, karate was originally called tii (手, hand) or karatii (唐手, Tang hand) because 唐ぬ國 too-nu-kuku or kara-nu-kuku (唐ぬ國) was a common Ryukyuan name for China; it was changed to karate (空手, open hand) to appeal to Japanese people after the First Sino-Japanese War.

Zhu Yu, who wrote during the Northern Song dynasty, noted that the name "Han" was first used by the northwestern 'barbarians' to refer to China, while the name "Tang" was first used by the southeastern 'barbarians' to refer to China, and these terms subsequently influenced the local Chinese terminology.^[74] During the Mongol invasions of Japan, the Japanese distinguished between the "Han" of northern China, who, like the Mongols and Koreans, were not to be taken prisoner, and the Newly Submitted Army of southern China, whom they called "Tang", who would be enslaved instead.^[75]

Dalu and Neidi

Dàlù (大陸/大陆; pinyin: dàlù), literally "big continent" or "mainland" in this context, is used as a short form of Zhōnggúo Dàlù (中國大陸/中国大陆, mainland China), excluding (depending on the context) Hong Kong, Macau, or Taiwan. This term is used in official contexts on both the mainland and Taiwan when referring to the mainland as opposed to Taiwan. In certain contexts, it is equivalent to the term Neidi (内地; pinyin: nèidì, literally "the inner land"). While Neidi generally refers to the interior as opposed to a particular coastal or border location, or the coastal or border regions generally, it is used in Hong Kong specifically to mean mainland China, excluding Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Increasingly, it is also being used in an official context within mainland China^{[citation needed]}, for example, in reference to the separate judicial and customs jurisdictions of mainland China on the one hand and Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan on the other.

The term Neidi is also often used in Xinjiang and Tibet to distinguish the eastern provinces of China from the minority-populated, autonomous regions of the west.

Official names

People's Republic of China

People's Republic of China
Hanyu Pinyin		Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó
Transcriptions Zhuang Cunghvaz Yinzminz Gunghozgoz Mongolian name Mongolian script ᠪᠦᠭᠦᠳᠡ ᠨᠠᠶᠢᠷᠠᠮᠳᠠᠬᠤ ᠳᠤᠮᠳᠠᠳᠤ ᠠᠷᠠᠳ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ Transcriptions SASM/GNC Bügüde nayiramdaqu dumdadu arad ulus Uyghur name Uyghur جۇڭخۇا خەلق جۇمھۇرىيىتى‎ Transcriptions Latin Yëziqi Jungxua Xelq Jumhuriyiti Yengi Yeziⱪ Junghua Həlⱪ Jumⱨuriyiti SASM/GNC Junghua Hälk̂ Jumĥuriyiti Siril Yëziqi Җуңхуа Хәлқ Җумһурийити Manchu name Manchu script ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠᡳᡵᡤᡝᠨ ᡤᡠᠨᡥᡝ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ Romanization Dulimbai niyalmairgen gunghe' gurun The name New China has been frequently applied to China by the Republic of China which is commonly called "Taiwan," "Nationalist China," or "Free China". In some contexts, particularly in economics, trade, and sports, "China" is often used to refer to mainland China to the exclusion of Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan . Republic of China Republic of China Mongolian Cyrillic Дундад иргэн улс Mongolian script ᠳᠤᠮᠳᠠᠳᠤ ᠢᠷᠭᠡᠨ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ Transcriptions SASM/GNC Dumdadu irgen ulus Japanese name Kanji 中華民国 Kana ちゅうかみんこく Transcriptions Romanization Chūka Minkoku Uyghur name Uyghur جۇڭخۇا مىنگو‎ Transcriptions Latin Yëziqi Jungxua Mingo Yengi Yeziⱪ Junghua Mingo Siril Yëziqi Җуңхуа Минго Manchu name Manchu script ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ ᡳᡵᡤᡝᠨ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ Romanization Dulimbai irgen' Gurun In 1912, China adopted its official name, Chunghwa Minkuo (rendered in pinyin Zhōnghuá Mínguó) or in English as the "Republic of China", which has also sometimes been referred to as " Nationalist China", after the ruling Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang). 中華 (Chunghwa) is a term that pertains to "China," while 民國 (Minkuo), literally "People's State" or "Peopledom," stands for "republic.".[76][77] The name stems from the party manifesto of Tongmenghui in 1905, which says the four goals of the Chinese revolution were "to expel the Manchu rulers, to revive Chunghwa, to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people. The convener of Tongmenghui and Chinese revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen proposed the name Chunghwa Minkuo as the assumed name of the new country when the revolution succeeded. Since the separation from mainland China in 1949 as a result of the Chinese Civil War, the territory of the Republic of China has largely been confined to the island of Taiwan and some other small islands. Thus, the country is often simply referred to as simply "Taiwan", although this may not be perceived as politically neutral. Amid the hostile rhetoric of the Cold War, the government and its supporters sometimes referred to themselves as "Free China" or "Liberal China," in contrast to the People's Republic of China, which was historically called the "Bandit-occupied Area" (匪區) by the ROC. In addition, the ROC, due to pressure from the PRC, was forced to use the name "Chinese Taipei" (中華台北) whenever it participates in international forums or most sporting events such as the Olympic Games. Taiwanese politician Mei Feng had criticised the official English name of the state, "Republic of China," for failing to translate the Chinese character "Min" ( Chen Shui-ban led DPP administration began to add "Taiwan" next to the nation's official name since 2005.[79] Names in non-Chinese records Names used in the parts of Asia, especially East and Southeast Asia, are usually derived directly from words in one of the languages of China. Those languages belonging to a former dependency (tributary) or Chinese-influenced country have an especially similar pronunciation to that of Chinese. Those used in Indo-European languages, however, have indirect names that came via other routes and may bear little resemblance to what is used in China. Chin Further information: Chinas English, most prefix "Sino-" or "Sin-" from the Latin Sina.[80][81] Europeans had knowledge of a country known in Greek as Thina or Sina from the early period;[82] the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea from perhaps the first century AD recorded a country known as Thin (θίν).[83] The English name for "China" itself is derived from Middle Persian (Chīnī چین). This modern word "China" was first used by Europeans starting with Portuguese explorers of the 16th century – it was first recorded in 1516 in the journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa.[84][85] The journal was translated and published in England in 1555.[86] The traditional etymology, proposed in the 17th century by Martin Martini and supported by later scholars such as Paul Pelliot and Berthold Laufer, is that the word "China" and its related terms are ultimately derived from the polity known as Qin that unified China to form the Qin dynasty (Old Chinese: *dzin) in the 3rd century BC, but existed as a state on the furthest west of China since the 9th century BC.[82][87][88] This is still the most commonly held theory, although the etymology is still a matter of debate according to the Oxford English Dictionary,[89] and many other suggestions have been mooted.[90][91] The existence of the word Cīna in ancient Indian texts was noted by the Sanskrit scholar Laws of Manu.[93] The Indologist Patrick Olivelle argued that the word Cīnā may not have been known in India before the first century BC, nevertheless he agreed that it probably referred to Qin but thought that the word itself was derived from a Central Asian language.[94] Some Chinese and Indian scholars argued for the state of Jing (荆, another name for Chu) as the likely origin of the name.[91] Another suggestion, made by Geoff Wade, is that the Cīnāh in Sanskrit texts refers to an ancient kingdom centered in present-day Guizhou, called Yelang, in the south Tibeto-Burman highlands.[93] The inhabitants referred to themselves as Zina according to Wade.[95] The term China can also be used to refer to: a modern state, indicating the PRC or ROC; "Mainland China" (中国大陆; 中國大陸; Zhōngguó Dàlù, which is the territory of the PRC minus the two regions of Hong Kong and Macau; "China proper", a term used to refer to the historical heartlands of China without peripheral areas like Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang In economic contexts, "Greater China" (大中华地区; 大中華地區; Dà Zhōnghuá dìqū) is intended to be a neutral and non-political way to refer to mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. Sinologists usually use "Chinese" in a more restricted sense, akin to the classical usage of Zhongguo, to the Han ethnic group, which makes up the bulk of the population in China and of the overseas Chinese. Great Wall Seres, Ser, Serica Main article: Serica Sēres (Σῆρες) was the Ancient Greek and Roman name for the northwestern part of China and its inhabitants. It meant 'of silk', or 'land where silk comes from'. The name is thought to derive from the Chinese word for silk, 丝; 絲; sī; Middle Chinese sɨ, Old Chinese *slɯ, per Zhengzhang ). It is itself at the origin of the Latin for 'silk', sērica. This may be a back formation from sērikos (σηρικός), 'made of silk', from sēr (σήρ), 'silkworm', in which case Sēres is 'the land where silk comes from'. Sinae, Sin Sīnae was an ancient Greek and Roman name for some people who dwelt south of Serica in the eastern extremity of the habitable world. References to the Sinae include mention of a city that the Romans called Sēra Mētropolis, which may be modern Chang'an. The Latin prefix Sino- as well as words such as Sinica, which are traditionally used to refer to China, came from Sīnae.[96] It is generally thought that Chīna, Sīna and Thīna are variants that ultimately derived from "Qin", the western Zhou-era state that eventually founded the Qin dynasty.[83] There are other opinions on its etymology: Henry Yule thought that this term may have come to Europe through the Arabs, who made the China of the farther east into Sin, and perhaps sometimes into Thin.[97] Hence the Thin of the author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, who appears to be the first extant writer to employ the name in this form; hence also the Sinae and Thinae of Ptolemy.[82][83] Some denied that Ptolemy's Sinae really represented the Chinese as Ptolemy called the country Sērice and the capital Sēra, but regarded them as distinct from Sīnae. Indian Sea as a closed basin meant that Ptolemy must also have misplaced the Chinese coast, leading to the misconception of Serica and Sina as separate countries.[97] In the Ham, but they are usually considered to be a different people, probably from the northern part of Lebanon.[101][102] Cathay or Kitay Main article: Cathay These names derive from the Qocho , in whose language the final -n or -ń became -y.[103] The name was then introduced to medieval and early modern Europe through Islamic and Russian sources.[104] In English and in several other European languages, the name "Cathay" was used in the translations of the adventures of Marco Polo, which used this word for northern China. Words related to Khitay are still used in many Turkic and Slavic languages to refer to China. However, its use by Turkic speakers within China, such as the Uyghurs, is considered pejorative by the Chinese authority who tried to ban it.[104] There is no evidence that either in the 13th or 14th century, Cathayans, i.e. Chinese, travelled officially to Europe, but it is possible that some did, in unofficial capacities, at least in the 13th century. During the campaigns of Chinese characters —perhaps affording the earliest specimen of those characters to reach western Europe. Tabgach The word Tabgach came from the metatheses of Tuoba (*t'akbat), a dominant tribe of the Xianbei and the surname of the Northern Wei emperors in the 5th century before sinicisation. It referred to Northern China, which was dominated by part-Xianbei, part-Han people. This name is re-translated back into Chinese as Taohuashi (Chinese: 桃花石; pinyin: táohuā shí).[105] This name has been used in China in recent years to promote ethnic unity.[106][107] Nikan Nikan (Manchu: ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ) was a Manchu ethnonym of unknown origin that referred specifically to the Han Chinese; the stem of this word was also conjugated as a verb, nikara(-mbi), which meant 'to speak the Chinese language'. Since Nikan was essentially an ethnonym and referred to a group of people rather than to a political body, the correct translation of "China" into Manchu is Nikan gurun, 'country of the Han'.[citation needed] This exonym for the Han Chinese is also used in the Daur language, in which it appears as Niaken ([njakən] or [ɲakən]).[108] As in the case of the Manchu language, the Daur word Niaken is essentially an ethnonym, and the proper way to refer to the country of the Han Chinese (i.e., "China" in a cultural sense) is Niaken gurun, while niakendaaci- is a verb meaning "to talk in Chinese." Kara Japanese: Kara (から; variously written as 唐 or 漢). An identical name was used by the ancient and medieval Japanese to refer to the country that is now known as Korea, and many Japanese historians and linguists believe that the word "Kara" referring to China and/or Korea may have derived from a metonymic extension of the appellation of the ancient city-states of Gaya. The Japanese word karate (空手, lit. "empty hand") is derived from the Okinawan word karatii (唐手, lit. "Chinese/Asian/foreign hand/trick/means/method/style") and refers to Okinawan martial arts; the character for kara was changed to remove the connotation of the style originating in China.[109] Morokoshi Japanese: Morokoshi (もろこし; variously written as 唐 or 唐土). This obsolete Japanese name for China is believed to have derived from a kun'yomi reading of the Chinese compound 諸越 Zhūyuè or 百越 Baiyue as "all the Yue" or "the hundred (i.e., myriad, various, or numerous) Yue," which was an ancient Chinese name for the societies of the regions that are now southern China. The Japanese common noun tōmorokoshi (トウモロコシ, 玉蜀黍), which refers to Shu millet," the etymology of the Japanese word appears to go back to "Tang morokoshi," in which "morokoshi" was the obsolete Japanese name for China as well as the Japanese word for sorghum , which seems to have been introduced into Japan from China. Mangi From Chinese Manzi (southern barbarians). The division of north and south China under the Jin dynasty and Song dynasty weakened the idea of a unified China, and it was common for non-Han peoples to refer to the politically disparate North and South by different names for some time. While Northern China was called Cathay, Southern China was referred to as Mangi. Manzi often appears in documents of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty as a disparaging term for Southern China. The Mongols also called Southern Chinese Nangkiyas or Nangkiyad, and considered them ethnically distinct from North Chinese. The word Manzi reached the Western world as Mangi (as used by Marco Polo), which is a name commonly found on medieval maps. Note however that the Chinese themselves considered Manzi to be derogatory and never used it as a self-appellation.[110][111] Some early scholars believed Mangi to be a corruption of the Persian Machin (ماچين) and Arabic Māṣīn (ماصين), which may be a mistake as these two forms are derived from the Sanskrit Maha Chin meaning Great China.[112] Sign names The name for China in sign languages have adopted the Chinese sign as a loanword; this includes American Sign Language,[114] in which this has happened across dialects, from Canada[115] to California,[116] replacing previous signs indicating East Asian people's typical epicanthic fold, now considered offensive.[117] Multiple other languages have borrowed the sign as well, with some modifications. In Taiwanese Sign Language, both hands are flat, with extended thumbs and other fingers held together and pointing sideways, palms towards the signer, move up and down together repeatedly in front of the signer's chest.[123] See also Little China (ideology) Chinese romanization List of country name etymologies Names of the Qing dynasty Names of India Names of Japan Names of Korea Names of Vietnam References Citations ^ Bilik, Naran (2015), "Reconstructing China beyond Homogeneity", Patriotism in East Asia, Political Theories in East Asian Context, Abingdon: Routledge, p. 105 ^ a b Wilkinson 2015, p. 191. ^ Esherick (2006), p. 232–233 ^ ISBN 978-0-8047-7868-8., p. 93-94 Archived 2023-04-11 at the Wayback Machine . ^ Zuo Zhuan "Duke Min – 1st year – zhuan Archived 2022-04-29 at the Wayback Machine" quote: "諸夏親暱不可棄也" translation: "The various Xia are close intimates and can not be abandoned" ^ Du Yu, Chunqiu Zuozhuan – Collected Explanations, "Vol. 4" p. 136 of 186 Archived 2022-05-11 at the Wayback Machine. quote: "諸夏中國也" ^ Zuozhuan "Duke Xiang – 4th year – zhuan Archived 2022-04-29 at the Wayback Machine" quote: "諸華必叛" translation: "The various Hua would surely revolt" ^ Du Yu, Chunqiu Zuozhuan – Collected Explanations, "Vol. 15". p. 102 of 162 Archived 2022-05-11 at the Wayback Machine quote: "諸華中國" ^ Ban Wang. Chinese Visions of World Order: Tian, Culture and World Politics. pp. 270–272. ISBN 978-1-107-19677-3 . ^ Classic of Poetry, "Major Hymns – Min Lu Archived 2022-04-12 at the Wayback Machine" quote: 《惠此中國、以綏四方。…… 惠此京師、以綏四國 。 " Legge's translation: "Let us cherish this center of the kingdom, to secure the repose of the four quarters of it. [...] Let us cherish this capital, to secure the repose of the States in the four quarters." ^ Zhu Xi (publisher, 1100s), Collected Commentaries on the Classic of Poetry (詩經集傳) "Juan A (卷阿)" Archived 2022-04-12 at the Wayback Machine p. 68 of 198 Archived 2022-04-12 at the Wayback Machine quote: "中國，京師也。四方，諸夏也。京師，諸夏之根本也。" translation: "The center of the kingdom means the capital. The 'four quarters' refer to the Huaxia. The capital is the root of the various Xia." ^ Shiji, "Annals of the Five Emperors" Archived 2022-05-10 at the Wayback Machine quote: "舜曰：「天也」，夫而後之中國踐天子位焉，是為帝舜。" translation: "Shun said, 'It is from Heaven.' Afterwards he went to the capital, sat on the Imperial throne, and was styled Emperor Shun." ^ Pei Yin, Records of the Grand Historian – Collected Explanation Vol. 1 "劉熈曰……帝王所都為中故曰中國" translation: "Liu Xi said: [...] Wherever emperors and kings established their capitals is taken as the center; hence the appellation the central region" ^ Shiji, "Annals of Emperor Xiaowu" Archived 2022-03-16 at the Wayback Machine ^ Shiji "Treatise about the Feng Shan sacrifices" Archived 2022-03-16 at the Wayback Machine ^ Zuo zhuan, "Duke Xiang, year 26, zhuan" Archived 2022-03-18 at the Wayback Machine text: "楚失華夏．" translation: "Chu lost (the political allegiance of / the political influence over) the flourishing and grand (states)." ^ Huan Wen (347 CE). "Memorial Recommending Qiao Yuanyan" (薦譙元彥表), quoted in Sun Sheng's Annals of Jin (晉陽秋) (now-lost), quoted in Pei Songzhi's annotations to Chen Shou, Records of the Three Kingdoms, "Biography of Qiao Xiu" Archived 2022-04-04 at the Wayback Machine quote: "於時皇極遘道消之會，群黎蹈顛沛之艱，中華有顧瞻之哀，幽谷無遷喬之望。" ^ Farmer, J. Michael (2017) "Sanguo Zhi Fascicle 42: The Biography of Qiao Zhou", Early Medieval China, 23, 22-41, p. 39. quote: "At this time, the imperial court has encountered a time of decline in the Way, the peasants have been trampled down by oppressive hardships, Zhonghua has the anguish of looking backward [toward the former capital at Luoyang], and the dark valley has no hope of moving upward." DOI: 10.1080/15299104.2017.1379725 ^ Fourmont, Etienne. "Linguae Sinarum Mandarinicae hieroglyphicae grammatica duplex, latinè, & cum characteribus Sinensium. Item Sinicorum Regiae Bibliothecae librorum catalogus… (A Chinese grammar published in 1742 in Paris)". Archived from the original on 2012-03-06. ^ Jiang 2011, p. 103. ^ Peter K Bol, "Geography and Culture: Middle-Period Discourse on the Zhong Guo: The Central Country," (2009), 1, 26. ^ Esherick (2006), pp. 232–233 ^ Hauer 2007 Archived 2023-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, p. 117. ^ Dvořák 1895 Archived 2023-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, p. 80. ^ Wu 1995 Archived 2023-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, p. 102. ^ Zhao (2006), p. 7. ^ Zhao (2006), p. 4, 7–10, 12–14. ^ Mosca 2011 Archived 2018-09-26 at the Wayback Machine, p. 94. ^ Dunnell 2004 Archived 2023-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, p. 77. ^ Dunnell 2004 Archived 2023-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, p. 83. ^ Elliott 2001 Archived 2023-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, p. 503. ^ Dunnell 2004 Archived 2023-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 76-77. ^ Cassel 2011 Archived 2023-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, p. 205. ^ Cassel 2012 Archived 2023-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, p. 205. ^ Cassel 2011 Archived 2023-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, p. 44. ^ Cassel 2012 Archived 2023-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, p. 44. ^ Perdue 2009 Archived 2023-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, p. 218. ^ S2CID 201771890 . ISBN 978-0-674-03545-4 . ^ Elliot 2000 Archived 2018-08-03 at the Wayback Machine, p. 638. ^ Barabantseva 2010, p. 20. ISBN 978-0-674-05455-4 . Retrieved February 15, 2010. ^ Esherick (2006), p. 232 ^ Esherick (2006), p. 251 ^ Liang quoted in Esherick (2006), p. 235, from Liang Qichao, "Zhongguo shi xulun" Yinbinshi heji 6:3 and in Lydia He Liu, The Clash of Empires: The Invention of China in Modern World Making (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), pp. 77–78. ISBN 0674116607 ), pp. 215–16 n. 20. ISBN 0-340-74133-3 ), pp. 103–104. ISBN 0-674-00247-4 ), 132. ^ "清朝时期"中国"作为国家名称从传统到现代的发展". Retrieved 2024-03-23. ^ 黄兴涛 (2023). 重塑中华. 大象出版社. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-674-04029-8 . ISBN 9787532596096 . Retrieved August 22, 2023. ^ "The Large Dragons of China". Stanley Gibbons. 7 April 2020. Retrieved August 21, 2023. ^ Wilkinson, p. 132. ^ Wilkinson 2012, p. 191. ^ Man and the universe. Japan. Siberia. China, p710 ^ Mission Stories of Many Lands, A Book for Young People, p174 ^ Mesny's Chinese Miscellany, Volume 2, p3 ISBN 9781476779713 . ^ New England Stamp Monthly, Volumes 1-2, p67 ISBN 9780977341825 . ISBN 9780977341825.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link ) ISBN 9781462906895 . ISBN 9781456789237 . ^ 孔穎達《春秋左傳正義》：「中國有禮儀之大，故稱夏；有服章之美，謂之華。」 ^ ISBN 978-0-231-14891-7 . ^ a b c "'Celestial' origins come from long ago in Chinese history". Mail Tribune. Rosebud Media LLC. 20 January 2011. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 25 November 2019. Śākyamuni Buddha's nirvaṇa . ISBN 978-1-136-79141-3 . ISBN 978-0-7591-0458-7 . ISBN 9789860109504 . ^ "Entry #60161 (有唐山公，無唐山媽。)". 臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典 [Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]. (in Chinese and Hokkien). Ministry of Education, R.O.C. 2011. ISBN 978-1-107-19677-3 . ^ Zuikei Shuho and Charlotte von Verschuer (2002). "Japan's Foreign Relations from 1200 to 1392 A.D.: A Translation from "Zenrin Kokuhōki"". Monumenta Nipponica. 57 (4): 432. ^ 《中華民國教育部重編國語辭典修訂本》:「以其位居四方之中，文化美盛，故稱其地為『中華』。」 ^ Wilkinson. Chinese History: A Manual. p. 32. ^ Mei Feng. "中華民國應譯為「PRC」". 开放网. Archived from the original on 2015-11-17. Retrieved 2022-05-25.2014-07-12 簡體的總統府 網站中，在「中華民國」之後，以括弧加注「臺灣」。[Chen Wen-tsong, Public Affairs Office of Taiwan's Presidential Office, stated last Saturday (30 July) that outsiders tend to mistake the Chung-hua Min-kuo (Republic of China) for China on the other side, causing trouble and inconvenience. The Public Affairs Office pointed out that in order to clarify the distinction, it was decided to add "Taiwan" in brackets after "Republic of China" on the website of the Presidential Palace in traditional and simplified Chinese starting from Saturday.] ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed (AHD4). Boston and New York, Houghton-Mifflin, 2000, entries china, Qin, Sino-. ISBN 978-0-8248-2975-9 . ^ a b c Yule (2005), p. 2–3 "There are reasons however for believing the word China was bestowed at a much earlier date, for it occurs in the Laws of Manu, which assert the Chinas to be degenerate Kshatriyas, and the Mahabharat, compositions many centuries older that imperial dynasty of Ts'in ... And this name may have yet possibly been connected with the Ts'in, or some monarchy of the like title; for that Dynasty had reigned locally in Shen si from the ninth century before our era..." ^ ISBN 978-0-7103-1167-2 . ISBN 0-19-957315-8 . ISBN 81-206-0451-2. Archived from the original on 2023-04-11. Retrieved 2020-11-18. In the Portuguese original Archived 2013-05-08 at the Wayback Machine , the chapter is titled "O Grande Reino da China". ^ Eden, Richard (1555). Decades of the New World: "The great China whose kyng is thought the greatest prince in the world." Myers, Henry Allen (1984). Western Views of China and the Far East, Volume 1. Asian Research Service. p. 34. ^ Wade (2009), pp. 8–11 doi:10.1163/156853212X00377 . ISBN 0-19-957315-8 ^ Yule (2005), p. 3–7 ^ a b Wade (2009), pp. 12–13 ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2017. ^ a b Wade (2009), p. 20 ISBN 9780674019959 . "Scholars have dated the earliest mentions of Cīna to the Rāmāyana and the Mahābhārata and to other Sanskrit sources such as the Hindu Laws of Manu." ^ Wade (2009) "This thesis also helps explain the existence of Cīna in the Indic Laws of Manu and the Mahabharata, likely dating well before Qin Shihuangdi." ^ "Sino-". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 2015-07-14. Retrieved 2015-07-14. ^ a b Yule (2005), p. xxxvii ^ Yule (2005), p. xl doi:10.11588/ts.2011.1.6127. Archived from the original on 2015-07-14. Retrieved 2015-07-14. ^ William Smith; John Mee Fuller, eds. (1893). Encyclopaedic dictionary of the Bible. p. 1328. ^ John Kitto, ed. (1845). A cyclopædia of biblical literature. p. 773. ^ William Smith; John Mee Fuller, eds. (1893). Encyclopaedic dictionary of the Bible. p. 1323. ISBN 92-3-103467-7 ^ ISBN 978-1-317-45137-2 . ISBN 978-981-12-3296-1 . ^ Victor Mair (May 16, 2022). "Tuoba and Xianbei: Turkic and Mongolic elements of the medieval and contemporary Sinitic states". Language Log. Retrieved 5 April 2024. ^ 习近平 (2019-09-27). "在全国民族团结进步表彰大会上的讲话". National Ethnic Affairs Commission of the People's Republic of China (in Chinese). Retrieved 5 April 2024. 分立如南北朝，都自诩中华正统；对峙如宋辽夏金，都被称为"桃花石"；统一如秦汉、隋唐、元明清，更是"六合同风，九州共贯"。 ^ Samuel E. Martin, Dagur Mongolian Grammar, Texts, and Lexicon, Indiana University Publications Uralic and Altaic Series, Vol. 4, 1961 ISBN 978-0-87011-436-6 . ^ Yule (2005), p. 177 ISBN 9789839541885 . ^ Yule (2005), p. 165 ISBN 9787508038247 . ^ "China". ASL Sign Language Dictionary. Princeton University. Archived from the original on 10 January 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. ISBN 0-88864-300-4 . Retrieved 2 October 2023. ^ Vicars, William G. "CHINA". American Sign Language University. Sacramento, California. Archived from the original on 29 May 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. ISBN 978-1-56368-043-4 . Retrieved 2 October 2023. ^ "🇺🇸 China 🇪🇪 Hiina". Spread the Sign. European Sign Language Center. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. ^ "🇺🇸 China 🇫🇷 Chine". Spread the Sign. European Sign Language Center. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. ^ מנשה, דבי. "ארצות / מדינות העולם בשפת הסימנים הישראלית". YouTube (in Hebrew). Retrieved 2 October 2023. ^ "🇺🇸 China". Spread the Sign. European Sign Language Center. Archived from the original on 9 December 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2023. ^ "China 中國". LSD Visual Sign Language Dictionary. Sign Assisted Instruction Programme. ^ "Mainland China". TSL Online Dictionary. The Taiwan Center for Sign Linguistics, National Chung Cheng University. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. Sources Cassel, Par Kristoffer (2011). Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-979212-2. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2014. Dvořák, Rudolf (1895). Chinas religionen ... (in German). Vol. 12, Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte (illustrated ed.). Aschendorff (Druck und Verlag der Aschendorffschen Buchhandlung). ISBN 0-19-979205-4. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2014. Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Foret, Philippe; Millward, James A (2004). New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde. Routledge. ISBN 1-134-36222-6 . Retrieved 10 March 2014. Elliott, Mark C. (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). 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