Multinational state

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

A multinational state or a multinational union is a sovereign entity that comprises two or more nations or states. This contrasts with a nation state, where a single nation accounts for the bulk of the population. Depending on the definition of "nation" (which touches on ethnicity, language, and political identity), a multinational state is usually multicultural or multilingual, and is geographically composed of more than one country, such as the countries of the United Kingdom.

Historical multinational states that have since split into multiple states include the Ottoman Empire, British India, Qing dynasty, Czechoslovakia, the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia and Austria-Hungary (a dual monarchy of two multinational states). Some analysts have described the European Union as a multinational state or a potential one.[1][2]

Definition

Many attempts have been made to define what a multinational state is. One complicating factor is that it is possible for members of a group that could be considered a nation to identify with two different nationalities simultaneously. As Ilan Peleg wrote in Democratizing the Hegemonic State:

One can be a Scot and a Brit in the United Kingdom, a Jew and an American in the United States, an Igbo and a Nigerian in Nigeria ... One might find it hard to be a Slovak and a Hungarian, an Arab and an Israeli, a Breton and a Frenchman.[3]

A state may also be a society, and a multiethnic society has people belonging to more than one ethnic group, in contrast to societies that are ethnically homogeneous. By some definitions of "society" and "homogeneous", virtually all contemporary national societies are multiethnic. The scholar David Welsh argued in 1993 that fewer than 20 of the 180 sovereign states then in existence were ethnically and nationally homogeneous, if a homogeneous state was defined as one in which minorities made up less than 5 percent of the population.[4] Sujit Choudhry therefore argues that "[t]he age of the agriculturally homogeneous state, if ever there was one, is over".[5]

Modern multinational states

Africa

Most countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are former colonies and, as such, are not drawn along national lines, making them truly multinational states.

Ghana

There is no ethnic majority in Ghana. The plurality group, the Akan people, are a meta-ethnicity (that is, a collection of similar but distinct ethnicities). While Akan is the most-widely spoken language in Ghana,[6] English is the official language of government [7][8]

Kenya

Luo, Luhya, Kamba, and Kalenjin—account for 70 percent of Kenyans.[9]

Nigeria

Map of Nigeria's linguistic groups

The largest nation in

Fulani (or Fulbe). While both ethnicities are found in large areas of West Africa, it is only in Nigeria that they are classified as a single ethnic group for political expediency. Nigeria is also made up of many other ethnic groups like the Yoruba, Igbo and Ibibio
. Prior to colonialism, they were not self identified as one ethnic nationality but are so today along with the three Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo which classification does carry between each group of who is part of and not part of the group aside from them Nigeria as about 250–500 other ethnic nationalities considered minorities with some large enough to control the outcomes of elections in states such as the Igala and Urhobo. While some are so small that they only show up in one local Government area

South Africa

Map showing the dominant languages in South Africa

Present-day South Africa is the successor state to the Union of South Africa, which was formed from four British colonies in 1910.

South Africa has eleven official languages (

Thembu and Hlubi
speak Xhosa.

As is the case throughout Africa, the nations of South Africa mostly correspond to specific regions. However, large cities such as Johannesburg are home to a mixture of national groups, leading to a "melting pot" of cultures. The government has continuously attempted to unify the country's various nationalities and to foster a South African identity.

Many of the nationalities found in South Africa are also found in bordering countries, and in some cases, more members live in South Africa than in the country where the group originated. For example, there are more Sotho, Tswana, and Swazi people living in South Africa than in the bordering nation states of Lesotho, Botswana, and Eswatini, respectively. In the past, this has led to conflict. Lesotho still claims large swathes of South Africa, and attempts have been made to cede some South African territory to Botswana and Eswatini. All three states were intended to be incorporated in the Union of South Africa, but those plans never came to fruition because of power struggles within their apartheid governments.

Americas

Bolivia

Since 2010, under the presidency of Evo Morales, Bolivia has been officially defined as a plurinational state, which recognizes the national distinctiveness of various indigenous peoples.

Canada

Whether

Canadian culture, and perhaps that of the Acadians.[12][13]

Asia

Afghanistan

While

Kyrgyz
, and several others.

Cambodia

While the ethnic

Chinese, and the ethnic Vietnamese, in addition to other smaller minority groups such as the Khmer Krom.[14]

China

Ethnolinguistic map of China

The People's Republic of China (PRC) is a multinational state consisting of 56 ethnic groups with the Han people the largest ethnic group in mainland China. As of 2010, 91.51% of the population were classified as Han (~1.2 billion).[15] Besides the Han Chinese majority, 55 other ethnic (minority) groups are categorized in present China, numbering approximately 105 million people (8%), mostly concentrated in the bordering northwest, north, northeast, south and southwest but with some in central interior areas.

The major

US and Europe are living in Mainland China.[17] In addition, there are also unrecognized ethnic groups, for example: Chuanqing people
(穿青人), and others, who account for over 730,000 people.

However, the

Taiwanese aborigines, which constitutes a number 569,000 or 2.38% of the island
's population. The PRC classifies them as Gāoshān.

Indonesia

Map showing ethnic groups native to Indonesia

Indonesia is a very diverse country with over 300 ethnic groups.

Japanese, Koreans
, and several others.

The largest ethnicity in Indonesia is the Javanese which makes up 40% of the population and most of them live indigenously in

Java island, the most populous island in the country. Generally, people who live outside of Jakarta
still retain the ethnic language and utilize it in daily conversations. As a result, formation of distinct dialects each unique to the regions, is prominently used among the population.

Laos

The government of

Tibeto-Burmese peoples, and 2 Hmong-Loumien peoples. They are generally spread across the nation each with their own distinct traditions, cultures and languages.[19]

Malaysia

When it was formed on 16 September 1963,

Sama-Bajau peoples for Sabah are dominant in their respective states. Malay is the primary official and national language, followed by English
. In Sabah and Sarawak, English is the official language, although many locals speak a dialect of Malay.

Myanmar

An ethnolinguistic map of Burma, 1972

The "major national ethnic races" are grouped primarily according to region rather than linguistic or ethnic affiliation, as for example the Shan Major National Ethnic Race includes 33 ethnic groups speaking languages in at least four widely differing language families.[21]

Many unrecognized ethnic groups exist, the largest being the

Panthay (who together form 3% of the population), Burmese Indians (who form 2% of the population), Rohingya, Anglo-Burmese and Gurkha
.

Philippines

Dominant ethnic groups by province

The Philippines has more than 182 distinct ethnolinguistic groups that the vast majority of them speaking

American Filipinos
.

Thailand

There are some 70 ethnic groups in

Chinese, Indians, and Thai Portuguese
. However, the Royal Thai Government officially recognizes only 62 of these ethnolinguistic groups.

Vietnam

The Vietnamese government recognizes 54 ethnic groups, of which the Viet (Kinh) is the largest; according to official Vietnamese figures (2019 census), ethnic Vietnamese account for 85.32% of the nation's population and the non-Vietnamese ethnic groups account for the remaining percent. The ethnic Vietnamese inhabit a little less than half of Vietnam, while the ethnic minorities inhabit the majority of Vietnam's land (albeit the least fertile parts of the country).

The central highland peoples commonly termed

Mon–Khmer
. About 30 groups of various cultures and dialects are spread over the highland territory.

Other minority groups include the

Thái
.

Europe

multilingual countries and regions of Europe
).

Russia

The largest two ethnic groups, excluding Russians, in each region (Census 2010)

Russia is a multinational state, and is home to over 193 ethnic groups. In the 2010 Census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic

Jews
).

The Tatars, Bashkirs, and Chechens are three predominantly

Finno-Ugric peoples of Northwest Russia and the Volga region; the Korean inhabitants of Sakhalin; and the diverse peoples of the North Caucasus.[26]

Russia's official language is Russian. However, Russia's 193 minority ethnic groups speak over 100 languages.[27] According to the 2002 Census, 142.6 million people speak Russian, followed by Tatar with 5.3 million, and Ukrainian with 1.8 million speakers.[28] The constitution gives the individual republics of the country the right to establish their own state languages in addition to Russian.[29]

Belgium

The territory of

partition of Belgium as a potential solution. There is also a German-speaking minority in the east
.

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH), the Republika Srpska (RS), and the Brčko District (BD).

bicameral legislature and a three-member presidency
composed of one member of each major ethnic group.

Norway

Official policy states that

Jews, Romani, and the Norwegian and Swedish Travellers are recognised as national minorities.[32]

Spain

Languages and dialects in Spain

Definitions of ethnicity and nationality in Spain are politically fraught, particularly since the transition from Francoist Spain to the (restored) Kingdom of Spain in the 1970s, when local regionalisms and peripheral nationalisms became a major part of national politics.

The term

Spanish Constitution of 1978
as the political sovereign, i.e., the citizens of the Kingdom of Spain. The same constitution, in its preamble, speaks of "peoples and nationalities of Spain" (pueblos y nacionalidades de España) and their respective cultures, traditions, languages, and institutions.

The CIA World Factbook (2011) describes Spain's ethnic makeup as a "composite of Mediterranean and Nordic types", instead of the usual breakdown of ethnic composition. This reflects the formation of the modern Kingdom of Spain by the accretion of numerous independent

Valencians
, and individual members of these groups may or may not consider them distinct nations.

United Kingdom

While the Office for National Statistics describes the United Kingdom as a nation state,[33][34] other people, including former Prime Minister Gordon Brown,[35] describe it as a multinational state.[36][37] The term "Home Nations" is used to describe the national teams that represent the four nations of the United Kingdom: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales in various sports.[38]

The

court from Edinburgh to London. However, until 1707, all three had remained separate political entities with separate political institutions.[41][42]

Prior to the Acts of Union, the Kingdoms of England and Scotland both had minority populations of their own that could themselves be called nations. Wales and Cornwall were part of the Kingdom of England (Wales had been officially incorporated into England by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, although it had been a de facto English territory since the 13th century; Cornwall had been conquered during the Anglo-Saxon period). The Northern Isles, with their Norse-derived culture, were part of Scotland, having been pledged by Norway as security against the payment of a dowry for Margaret of Denmark[43] and then integrated in 1471. When the Kingdom of Great Britain was created, many of its inhabitants retained a sense of English, Scottish, or Welsh identity. Many of them also spoke languages other than English: principally Scottish Gaelic, Scots, Welsh, Cornish, and Norn.

Almost a century later, the Kingdom of Ireland merged with the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the

Acts of Union.[44] The United Kingdom thus became the union of the kingdoms of England, Ireland, and Scotland.[41][42] Eventually, disputes within Ireland over the terms of Irish home rule led to the partition of the island:[45] The Irish Free State received dominion status in 1922, while Northern Ireland remained part of the UK.[46] As a result, in 1927, the formal title of the UK was changed to its current form, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.[47]

Political, ethnic, and religious tensions between Irish and British groups in Northern Ireland culminated in The Troubles.[48] This period of armed conflict erupted in 1966 between loyalist paramilitaries, seeking to maintain the country's position in the UK, and republican paramilitaries, seeking to unify Ireland as a 32-county independent republic. The British Army also played a key role. Following the deaths of over 3,500 people,[49] a peace treaty was reached in 1998,[50] although divisions remain high in some areas and sporadic violence still occurs.[51]

The end of the 20th century brought major governing changes, with the establishment of devolved national administrations for Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales following pre-legislative referendums.[52]

The

referendum on Scottish independence was held in September 2014, and 55% of the electorate rejected independence in favour of retaining the union.[53] Plaid Cymru, a Welsh nationalist party, has a similar ambition for Wales. Plaid Cymru is currently the second- or third-largest party in Wales depending on how it is measured.[54] Several parties in Northern Ireland, including the second- and third-largest,[55] seek to establish an independent United Ireland, and have repeatedly called for border polls.[56] The d'Hondt system used in Northern Ireland means that either the First Minister or Deputy First Minister will be from one of these parties.[57]

Indian Subcontinent

Bhutan

The four major groups that compose Bhutan's ethnic population are the

1959 Tibetan Rebellion
.

India

Nihali
).

Each state and

scheduled languages". It also recognizes 212 scheduled tribal groups, which together constitute about 7.5% of the country's population.[citation needed
]

Most of its states are based on a

, and several other people groups.

Furthermore, several other Indian states are themselves ethnically, linguistically, and religiously diverse. The tribes of

.

Nepal

.

Pakistan

2017 Pakistan Census

Hazarewals
and several other minorities.

Present-day Pakistan arose out of the Pakistan Movement, which demanded a separate state for the Muslims of the British Raj. The movement was based on the two-nation theory put forward by Muhammad Ali Jinnah: the idea that Hindus and Muslims in British India represented not only different religious communities but also distinct nations, and hence that, in the event of Indian independence, they should be divided into two nation states. Jinnah (known in Pakistan as "Quaid-e-Azam", meaning "the great leader")[citation needed] outlined the theory as follows:

It is extremely difficult to appreciate why our Hindu friends fail to understand the real nature of Islam and Hinduism. They are not religious in the strict sense of the word, but are, in fact, different and distinct social orders, and it is a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a common nationality, and this misconception of one Indian nation has troubles and will lead India to destruction if we fail to revise our notions in time. The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs, literatures. They neither intermarry nor interdine together and, indeed, they belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their aspect on life and of life are different. It is quite clear that Hindus and Mussalmans derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, different heroes, and different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other and, likewise, their victories and defeats overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built for the government of such a state."[59][60]

This movement culminated in the creation of Pakistan in 1947 through the partition of India. Urdu was then promoted as the national language of all South Asian Muslims. However, Pakistan remains ethnically diverse. Punjabis are the largest ethnolinguistic group, but at 45 percent of the population, they do not make up an absolute majority. Furthermore, only 8 percent of Pakistanis speak the national language, Urdu, as their mother tongue. As a result, many nationalist movements that oppose the two-nation theory have emerged, arguing that Pakistan is not only a linguistically diverse state but also a multinational one, and that, therefore, each ethnolinguistic group of Pakistan is a distinct nation.[61] Common grievances of these movements include the idea that Punjabis dominate Pakistan politically and economically, thus marginalizing other groups, and that the establishment of Urdu as the country's sole official language is a form of cultural imperialism that ignores the heritage of Pakistan's diverse peoples.

The most successful of these movements was Bengali nationalism, which led to the creation of the Bengali-speaking nation-state of Bangladesh. The movement asserted that Urdu's official status gave an unfair advantage to Muhajirs (most of whom speak Urdu as their mother tongue) and Punjabis (whose mother tongue, Punjabi, is similar to Urdu, and many of whom were educated in Urdu under British rule). Bengalis feared they would be marginalized despite their demographic strength as, at the time, the largest ethnic group of Pakistan. These grievances culminated in the secession of East Bengal (which had been part of the administrative unit of East Pakistan) and the creation of Bangladesh.

Today, nationalist movements within Pakistan include those of the

language rights
for non-Urdu-speaking populations, to outright secession.

Despite the fact that Punjabis are widely seen as the dominant ethnic group in Pakistan, both economically and politically, there is also a small Punjabi movement that asserts that the Punjabi language has been unfairly subordinated to Urdu and supports the reestablishment of cultural and economic links with East Punjab in India.[62]

Former multinational states

Qing dynasty

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Austria-Hungary

Austria-Hungary
Bosnia
(18).

Austria-Hungary, which succeeded the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, was a historical monarchy composed by two multinational states. The centrifugal forces within it, coupled with its loss in World War I, led to its breakup in 1918. Its successor states de jure included the First Austrian Republic, the Kingdom of Hungary, while part from her former territories entirely new states were created such as Czechoslovakia, or other parts incorporated into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Poland, Kingdom of Romania, Kingdom of Italy and the Soviet Union.

The principal languages of Austria-Hungary were

Yiddish.[63]

Ottoman Empire

The

.

In addition to

.

Through

Arabic word "millah" (ملة), which literally means "nation".)[citation needed] The millet system has been called an example of pre-modern religious pluralism.[64]

Soviet Union

Ethnographic map of the Soviet Union, 1970

The

Ukrainian, and Belarusian SSRs. Addressing the Extraordinary Eighth Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union on 25 November 1936, Joseph Stalin stated that "within the Soviet Union there are about sixty nations, national groups, and nationalities. The Soviet state is a multinational state."[65] Among the 15 republics were the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, which were illegally annexed into the Soviet Union in 1940. The Soviet occupation of the Baltic states was not recognized by a number of Western governments including the United States
.

In the late 1980s, some of the republics sought sovereignty over their territories, citing Article 72 of the USSR Constitution, which stated that any constituent republic was free to secede.[66] On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two-thirds of its residents voted for secession in a referendum.[67] Many held free elections, and the resulting legislatures soon passed bills that contradicted Soviet laws, in what became known as the War of Laws.

In 1989, the Russian SFSR—the largest constituent republic, with about half of the USSR's population—convened a new Congress of People's Deputies and elected Boris Yeltsin its chairman. On 12 June 1990, the Congress declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory and proceeded to pass legislation that attempted to supersede Soviet laws. Legal uncertainty continued through 1991 as constituent republics slowly gained de facto independence.

In

August Coup—an attempted coup d'état against Gorbachev by hardline Communist Party members of the government and the KGB
, who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. When the coup collapsed, Yeltsin—who had publicly opposed it—came out as a hero, while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended.

As a result, the balance of power tipped significantly toward the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia had regained their independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example), while the other twelve republics continued to discuss new, increasingly loose models for the Union.

On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus signed the

Georgia—including those that had signed the Belavezha Accords—signed the Alma-Ata Protocol
, which confirmed the dissolution of the USSR and reiterated the establishment of the CIS. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev yielded, resigning as the president of the USSR and declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers vested in the Soviet presidency over to Yeltsin, the president of Russia.

The following day, the Supreme Soviet, the highest governmental body of the Soviet Union, dissolved itself. Many organizations, such as the Soviet Army and police forces, remained in place in the early months of 1992, but were slowly phased out and either withdrawn from or absorbed by the newly independent states.

Yugoslavia

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

The first country to be known by this name was the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, known until 3 October 1929 as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. It was established on 1 December 1918 by the union of the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs and the Kingdom of Serbia (to which the Kingdom of Montenegro had been annexed on 13 November 1918), and the Conference of Ambassadors gave international recognition to the union on 13 July 1922.[68]

The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers in 1941 and abolished as a result of World War II. It was succeeded by Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, proclaimed in 1943 by the Yugoslav Partisans resistance movement. When a communist government was established in 1946, the country was renamed the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia. In 1963, it was renamed again, becoming the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). This was the largest Yugoslav state, with Istria and Rijeka having been added after World War II.

The country consisted of six constituent "socialist republics" (

SAP Kosovo, which became largely equal to other members of the federation after 1974).[69][70]

Starting in 1991, the SFRY disintegrated in the Yugoslav Wars, which followed the secession of most of the country's constituent entities. The next Yugoslavia, known as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, existed until 2003, when it was renamed Serbia and Montenegro. In 2006, this last vestige separated into Serbia and Montenegro, but only to go further in 2008 after Kosovo unilaterally declared its independence but with limited recognition.

Czechoslovakia

Linguistic map of Czechoslovakia in 1930

Czechoslovakia was a multi-ethnic state, with Czechs and Slovaks as constituent peoples. Sudeten Germans were forcibly expelled after World War II.

See also

References

  1. ^ Kelemen, R. Daniel. (2007). "Built to Last? The Durability of EU Federalism?" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-01-20. In Making History: State of the European Union, Vol. 8, edited by Sophie Meunier and Kate McNamara, Oxford University Press, p. 52.
  2. .
  3. ^ Ilan Peleg, 'Classifying Multinational States' in Democratizing the Hegemonic State (Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 78–80
  4. .
  5. .
  6. ^ "Introduction To The Verbal and Multi-Verbalsystem of Akan" (PDF). ling.hf.ntnu.no. 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 16 November 2013.
  7. ^ "Language and Religion". Ghana Embassy. Archived from the original on 1 March 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2017. English is the official language of Ghana and is universally used in schools in addition to nine other local languages. The most widely spoken local languages are, Ga, Dagomba, Mumpruli, Akan and Ewe.
  8. ^ "Ghana – 2010 Population and Housing Census" (PDF). Government of Ghana. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2013. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
  9. ^ a b "East Africa Living Encyclopedia". www.africa.upenn.edu. Retrieved 2017-01-05.
  10. S2CID 154802932
    .
  11. ^ "Journals No. 87 – November 27, 2006 (39–1) – House of Commons of Canada". www.parl.gc.ca. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
  12. SSRN 2238333. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help
    )
  13. ^ Blattberg, Charles (2003). Shall We Dance? A Patriotic Politics for Canada. Montreal: McGill–Queen's University Press.
  14. ^ "Cambodia - World Directory of Minorities & Indigenous Peoples". Minority Rights Group. 2015-06-19. Retrieved 2023-04-22.
  15. ^ "Han Chinese proportion in China's population drops: census data". Xinhua News (English). 28 April 2011. Archived from the original on 11 July 2016. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
  16. ^ "index". www.stats.gov.cn.
  17. ^ "Expats in China: Nationalities and in which cities they settle".
  18. ^ "Mengulik Data Suku di Indonesia". Badan Pusat Statistik. 18 November 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
  19. ^ Hays, Jeffrey. "ETHNIC GROUPS AND MINORITIES IN LAOS | Facts and Details". factsanddetails.com. Retrieved 2023-04-22.
  20. ^ Retrieved from Myanmar Ministry of Hotels and Tourism webpage at Archived 20 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  21. Mon–Khmer language, and the Yao speak a Hmong–Mien
    language.
  22. ^ Ethnic groups in Russia Archived 22 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine, 2002 census, Demoscope Weekly. Retrieved 5 February 2009.
  23. ^ a b "ВПН-2010". perepis-2010.ru. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012.
  24. ^ Kirk, Ashley (21 January 2016). "Mapped: Which country has the most immigrants?". The Daily Telegraph.
  25. ^ Leonid Ragozin (3 April 2019). "Russia and Ukraine Fight, But Their People Seek Reconciliation". Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
  26. ^ Ethnic groups in Russia Archived 2011-06-22 at the Wayback Machine, at demoscope.ru
  27. Encyclopedia Britannica
    . Retrieved 8 November 2020.
  28. Rosstat. Archived from the original
    on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 16 January 2008.
  29. ^ "The Constitution of the Russian Federation". (Article 68, § 2). Retrieved 27 December 2007.
  30. ^ "Census of population, households and dwellings in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2013: Final results" (PDF). Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina. June 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
  31. Regjeringen.no
    , retrieved 17 July 2013
  32. Regjeringen.no
    , retrieved 17 July 2013
  33. ^ "ONS Glossary of economic terms". Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 7 September 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
  34. .
  35. ^ "Gordon Brown: We must defend the Union", The Telegraph, 25 March 2008.
  36. ^ Hogwood, Brian. "Regulatory Reform in a Multinational State: The Emergence of Multilevel Regulation in the United Kingdom" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
  37. ^ "Diversity and Citizenship Curriculum Review" (PDF). Devon County Council. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-15. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
  38. ^ Magnay, Jacquelin (26 May 2010). "London 2012: Hugh Robertson puts Home Nations football team on agenda". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 28 April 2011. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
  39. ^ William E. Burns, A Brief History of Great Britain, p. xxi
  40. ^ "Articles of Union with Scotland 1707". UK Parliament. Retrieved 19 October 2008.
  41. ^ , p. 56.
  42. ^ , p. 104.
  43. ^ "Orkney and Shetland Are Pawned as Dowry ⋆ History Channel". History Channel. 2016-06-20. Retrieved 2017-01-05.
  44. ^ "The Act of Union". Act of Union Virtual Library. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 15 May 2006.
  45. SR&O 1921
    /533 of 3 May 1921
  46. ^ "The Anglo-Irish Treaty, 6 December 1921". CAIN. Retrieved 15 May 2006.
  47. , p. 85.
  48. ^ "The Troubles gallery – 40 years of conflict in Northern Ireland from the Belfast Telegraph archives – BelfastTelegraph.co.uk". BelfastTelegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2017-05-22.
  49. ^ "BBC – History – The Troubles – Violence". Retrieved 2017-05-22.
  50. ^ "The Belfast Agreement – GOV.UK". www.gov.uk. Retrieved 2017-05-22.
  51. ISSN 0261-3077
    . Retrieved 2017-05-22.
  52. .
  53. ^ "Scottish referendum: Scotland votes 'No' to independence". BBC News. 2014-09-19. Retrieved 2017-01-05.
  54. ^ Simon Jenkins, We'd be a more united kingdom with an independent Scotland in The Sunday Times dated September 17, 2006
  55. ^ "Northern Ireland Assembly election 2017 results". BBC News. Retrieved 2017-05-22.
  56. ^ "Sinn Fein chief Gerry Adams in fresh call for united Ireland border poll – BelfastTelegraph.co.uk". BelfastTelegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2017-05-22.
  57. ^ "D'Hondt system for picking NI ministers in Stormont". BBC News. 2011-05-11. Retrieved 2017-05-22.
  58. ^ Chari, Mridula (November 2016). "How the map of India was redrawn on the lines of language". Scroll.in. Retrieved 2020-06-16.
  59. ^ "VIEW: March towards independence". Daily Times. 23 March 2011. Retrieved 29 September 2011.
  60. ^ Excerpt from the Presidential Address delivered by Quaid-e-Azam at Lahore, March 22–23, 1940 Archived 2006-06-28 at the Wayback Machine, Nazariapak.info
  61. ^ Tariq Rahman (1996). Language and Politics in Pakistan. Oxford University Press. p. 2.
  62. ^ Tariq Rahman. 'The Punjabi Movement' from Language and Politics in Pakistan.
  63. ^ Volkszählung vom 31. Dezember 1910, published in Geographischer Atlas zur Vaterlandskunde an der österreichischen Mittelschulen (Vienna, 1911)
  64. . The millet system in the Muslim world provided the pre-modern paradigm of a religiously pluralistic society by granting each religious community an official status and a substantial measure of self-government.
  65. ^ On the Draft Constitution of the U.S.S.R marxists.org, accessed 15 January 2011
  66. ^ The red blues — Soviet politics by Brian Crozier, National Review, 25 June 1990.
  67. ^ Origins of Moral-Ethical Crisis and Ways to Overcome it by V.A.Drozhin Honoured Lawyer of Russia.
  68. ^ "Interesting things about the royal order of Montenegro – Untitled". Orderofdanilo. Archived from the original on 16 May 2009. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
  69. .
  70. ^ "History, bloody history". BBC News. March 24, 1999. Retrieved December 29, 2010.