Names of Germany
History of Germany |
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There are many widely varying names of Germany in different languages, more so than for any other European nation. For example:
- the German language endonym is Deutschland, from the Old High German diutisc
- the French exonym is Allemagne, from the name of the Alamanni tribe
- In Italian it is Germania, from the Latin Germania, although the German people are called tedeschi
- in Polish it is Niemcy, from the Proto-Slavic nemets, referring to strangers, incomprehensible to Slavic speakers[1]
- the Finnish called the country Saksa, from the name of the Saxon tribe.
Often language lags behind the changing society and names tend to retain references to first encounters: the Finnish first and foremost met the Saxons while the French faced the Alamanni. Comparable tendencies appear elsewhere, e.g. in names for Russia.[1]
Each of the names for Germany has been adapted into other languages all over the world. After an overview of variants this article presents etymological and geographic context for the forms and their worldwide usage as well as names used in bureaucracy.
List of area names
In general, the names for Germany can be arranged in six main groups according to their origin:
1. From Old High German diutisc or similar[a]
- Afrikaans: Duitsland
- Chinese: 德意志 (pinyin: Déyìzhì), commonly 德國 (trad.) or 德国 (simp.) (Déguó; "Dé" from 德意志, and "guó" means "country")
- Danish: Tyskland
- Dutch: Duitsland
- Faroese: Týskland
- German: Deutschland
- Icelandic: Þýskaland
- Japanese: ドイツ (独逸) (Doitsu)
- Kinyarwanda: Ubudage[2]
- Korean: 독일(獨逸) (Dogil) or 도이췰란드 (Doichwillandeu – North Korea)
- Lojban: dotygu'e
- Low German/Low Saxon: Düütschland/Duutslaand
- Luxembourgish: Däitschland
- Medieval Latin: Teutonia, regnum Teutonicum
- Nahuatl: Teutōtitlan
- Norwegian: Tyskland
- Northern Sami: Duiska
- Northern Sotho: Tôitšhi
- Swedish: Tyskland
- Tamil: இடாய்ச்சுலாந்து (idaichulandu)
- Vietnamese: Đức (德)
- West Frisian: Dútslân
- Yiddish: דײַטשלאַנד (daytshland)
- Acehnese: Jeureuman
- Albanian: Gjermania
- Aramaic: ܓܪܡܢ (jerman)
- Armenian: Գերմանիա (Germania)
- Bengali: জার্মানি (jarmani)
- Bulgarian: Германия (Germánija)[b]
- Burmese: ဂျာမနီ (gyamani)
- Modern English: Germany
- Esperanto: Germanio (also Germanujo)
- Friulian: Gjermanie
- Georgian: გერმანია (germania)
- Greek: Γερμανία (Germanía)
- Gujarati: જર્મની (jarmanī)
- Hausa: Jamus
- Modern Hebrew: גרמניה (germánya)
- Hindustani: जर्मनी / جرمنی (jarmanī)
- Ido: Germania
- Pashto:جارمنی/jarmani
- Indonesian: Jerman
- Interlingua: Germania
- Irish: An Ghearmáin
- Italian: Germania[c]
- Hawaiian: Kelemania
- Kannada: ಜರ್ಮನಿ (jarmani)
- Lao: ເຢຍລະມັນ (yīa la man)
- Latin: Germania
- Macedonian: Германија (Germanija)
- Malaysian and Indonesian): Jerman
- Manx: Yn Ghermaan
- Maltese: Ġermanja
- Māori: Tiamana
- Marathi: जर्मनी (jarmanī)
- Marshallese: Jāmne
- Mongolian: Герман (German)
- Nauruan: Djermani
- Nepali: जर्मनी (jarmanī)
- Panjabi: ਜਰਮਨੀ (jarmanī)
- Romanian: Germania[d]
- Rumantsch: Germania
- Russian: Германия (Germánija)[e]
- Samoan: Siamani
- Sardinian: Germania[f]
- Scottish Gaelic: A' Ghearmailt
- Sicilian: Girmania
- Sinhala: ජර්මනිය (jarmaniya)
- Somali: Jarmal
- Sundanese: Jerman
- Swahili: Ujerumani
- Tahitian: Heremani
- Tamil: செருமனி (cerumani), ஜெர்மனி (jermani)
- Thai: เยอรมนี (yəə-rá-má-nii), เยอรมัน (yəə-rá-man) (adjective)
- Tongan: Siamane
- Urdu: جرمنی (jarmanī)
3. From the name of the
- Arabic: ألمانيا ('ʾalmānyā)
- Asturian: Alemaña
- Azerbaijani: Almaniya
- Basque: Alemania
- Breton: Alamagn
- Catalan: Alemanya
- Cornish: Almayn
- Filipino: Alemanya
- Franco-Provençal: Alemagnes
- French: Allemagne
- Galician: Alemaña
- Guarani: Alemáña
- Kazakh: Алмания (Almanïya), not used anymore or used very rarely, now using Russian "Германия".
- Khmer: អាល្លឺម៉ង់ (ʾaalləɨmɑng)
- Kurdish: Elmaniya
- Latin: Alemannia
- Mirandese: Almanha
- Occitan: Alemanha
- Ojibweᐋᓂᒫ (aanimaa)
- Persian: آلمان ('ālmān)
- Piedmontese: Almagna
- Portuguese: Alemanha
- Quechua: Alimanya
- Spanish: Alemania
- Tajik: Олмон (Olmon)
- Tatar: Алмания Almania
- Tetum: Alemaña
- Turkish: Almanya
- Welsh: Yr Almaen (with preceding definite article)
4. From the name of the
5. From the
- Belarusian: Нямеччына (Njamjéččyna)
- Bosnian: Njemačka
- Bulgarian: Немско (Nemsko) (obsolete colloquial)
- Croatian: Njemačka
- Czech: Německo
- Hungarian: Németország
- Kashubian: Miemieckô
- Montenegrin: Njemačka
- Ottoman Turkish: نمچه (nemçe), meaning all Austrian – Holy Roman Empirecountries
- Polish: Niemcy
- Serbian: Немачка (Nemačka)
- Silesian: Ńymcy
- Slovak: Nemecko
- Slovene: Nemčija
- Lower Sorbian: Nimska
- Upper Sorbian: Němska
- Ukrainian: Німеччина (Niméččyna)
6. From the name of
- Limburgish: Pruses (mostly in derogatory meaning)
- informal Luxembourgish: Preisen
- informal Twents: De Pruus
- Silesian: Prusacy
- Tahitian: Purutia (also Heremani, see above)
7. Unclear origin[h]
- Kursenieki: Vāce Zėm
- Latgalian: Vuoceja
- Latvian: Vācija
- Lithuanian: Vokietija
- Samogitian: Vuokītėjė
Other forms:
- Medieval Greek: Frángoi, frangikós (for Germans, German) – after the Franks.
- Medieval Hebrew: אַשְׁכְּנַז (Ashkenaz), from biblical Ashkenaz, son of Japheth and grandson of Noah, thought to be the ancestor of the Germans.
- Lower Sorbian: bawory or bawery (in older or dialectal use) – from the name of Bavaria.
- Silesian: szwaby from Swabia, bambry used for German colonists from the area around Bamberg, krzyżacy (a derogative form of krzyżowcy – crusaders) referring to Teutonic Order, Rajch or Rajś resembling German pronunciation of Reich.[4]
- Old Norse: Suðrvegr – literally south way (cf. Norway),[5] describing Germanic tribes which invaded continental Europe.
- Kinyarwanda: Ubudage, Kirundi: Ubudagi – thought to derive from the greeting guten Tag used by Germans during the colonial times,[6] or from deutsch.[7]
- Navajo: Béésh Bich’ahii Bikéyah ("Metal Cap-wearer Land"), in reference to Stahlhelm-wearing German soldiers.
- Lakota: Iyášiča Makȟóčhe[8] ("Bad Speaker Land").
- Plains Cree: pîwâpiskwastotininâhk ("Among the Steel Helmets") or mâyakwêsinâhk ("Among the Speakers of a Foreign/Strange Language")[9]
- Sudovian: miksiskai, Old Prussian miksiskāi (both for "German") – from miksît "to stammer".
- Polish (slang of the communist period): Erefen from R.F.N. = F.R.G. (Federal Republic of Germany)[4]
- Polish (pre-Second World War slang): Rajch from German Reich[4]
Names from Diutisc
The name Deutschland and the other similar-sounding names above are derived from the
Also the Italian for "German", tedesco (local or archaic variants: todesco, tudesco, todisco), comes from the same
The Germanic language which diutisc most likely comes from is
In
The
In the northern French language area (northern France, Belgium), the neighboring Germanic dialects, areas and inhabitants of Flanders to Alsace are sometimes referred to as Thiois, most likely still for the area between Maastricht and Aachen and for the traditional German speaking part of Lorraine (Lorraine Thioise), The term is obsolete and derives from theodisc (see above).[12]
Names from Germania
The name Germany and the other similar-sounding names above are all derived from the Latin Germania, of the 3rd century BC, a word simply describing fertile land behind the limes (frontier). It was likely the Gauls who first called the people who crossed east of the Rhine Germani (which the Romans adopted) as the original Germanic tribes did not refer to themselves as Germanus (singular) or Germani (plural).[13]
19th-century and early 20th-century historians speculated on whether the northern Belgae were
The
In English, the word "German" is first attested in 1520, replacing earlier uses of
Names from Alemanni
The name Allemagne and the other similar-sounding names above are derived from the southern
In English, the name "Almain" or "Alman" was used for Germany and for the adjective German until the 16th century, with "German" first attested in 1520, used at first as an alternative then becoming a replacement, maybe inspired mainly by the need to differ them from the more and more independently acting Dutch. In Othello ii,3, (about 1603), for example, Shakespeare uses both "German" and "Almain" when Iago describes the drinking prowess of the English:
- I learned it in England, where, indeed, they are most potent in potting: your Dane, your German, and your swag-bellied Hollander—Drink, ho!—are nothing to your English. [...] Why, he drinks you, with facility, your Dane dead drunk; he sweats not to overthrow your Almain; he gives your Hollander a vomit, ere the next pottle can be filled.
Andrew Boorde also mentions Germany in his Introduction to Knowledge, c. 1547:
- The people of High Almain, they be rude and rusticall, and very boisterous in their speech, and humbly in their apparel .... they do feed grossly, and they will eat maggots as fast as we will eat comfits.
Through this name, the English language has also been given the Allemande (a dance), the Almain rivet and probably the almond furnace, which is probably not really connected to the word "almond" (of Greek origin) but is a corruption of "Almain furnace". In modern German, Alemannisch (Alemannic German) is a group of dialects of the Upper German branch of the Germanic language family, spoken by approximately ten million people in six countries.
Among the indigenous peoples of North America of former French and British colonial areas, the word for "Germany" came primarily[
Names from Saxon
The names Saksamaa and Saksa are derived from the name of the Germanic tribe of the Saxons. The word "Saxon", Proto-Germanic *sakhsan, is believed (a) to be derived from the word seax, meaning a variety of single-edged knives: a Saxon was perhaps literally a swordsman, or (b) to be derived from the word "axe", the region axed between the valleys of the Elbe and Weser.
In
The Transylvanian Saxons arrived to Transylvania mainly from the Rhineland, not Saxony.
Names from Nemets
The Slavic
Use of němьci was narrowed to just Germans. The plural form is used for the Germans instead of any specific country name, e.g. Niemcy in Polish and Ńymcy in Silesian dialect. In other languages, the country's name derives from the adjective němьcьska (zemja) meaning 'German (land)' (f.i. Czech Německo). Belarusian Нямеччына (Niamieččyna), and Ukrainian Німеччина (Nimecchyna) are also from němьcь but with the addition of the suffix -ina.
According to another theory,[18][19] Nemtsy may derive from the Rhine-based, Germanic tribe of Nemetes mentioned by Caesar[20] and Tacitus.[21] This etymology is dubious for phonological reasons, as nemetes could not become Slavic němьcь.[17]
In Russian, the adjective for "German", nemetskiy (немецкий) comes from the same Slavic root while the name for the country is Germaniya (Германия). Likewise, in Bulgarian the adjective is nemski (немски) and the country is Germaniya (Германия).
Over time, the Slavic exonym was borrowed by some non-Slavic languages. The Hungarian name for Germany is Németország (from the stem Német-, lit. "Német land"). The popular Romanian name for German is neamț, used alongside the official term, german, which was borrowed from Latin.
According to the Chinese History of Yuan, the Mongol commander Uriyangkhadai took part in the invasion of Poland and of the Holy Roman Empire, described as the land of the Nie-mi-sz'.[22]
The Arabic name for
Names from Baltic regions
In
Names in East Asia
In East Asia, the names have generally been imported directly from German "deutsch" or Dutch "duits" in various ways.
The Chinese name is a phonetic approximation of the German proper adjective. The Vietnamese name is based on the Chinese name. The Japanese name is a phonetic approximation of the Dutch proper adjective. The Korean name is based on the Japanese name. This is explained in detail below:
The common Chinese name 德国 (德國, pinyin: Déguó) is a combination of the short form of 德意志 (pinyin: déyìzhì), which approximates the German pronunciation [ˈdɔʏtʃ] of Deutsch ‘German’, plus 國 guó ‘country’.
The Vietnamese name Đức is the Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation (đức [ɗɨ́k]) of the character 德 that appears in the Chinese name.
Japanese language ドイツ (doitsu) is an approximation of the word Deutsch meaning ‘German’.[24] It was earlier written with the Sino-Japanese character compound 獨逸 (whose 獨 has since been simplified to 独), but has been largely superseded by the aforementioned katakana spelling ドイツ. However, the character 独 is still used in compounds, for example 独文 (dokubun) meaning ‘German literature’, or as an abbreviation, such as in 独日関係 (Dokunichi kankei, German-Japanese relations).
The (South) Korean name Dogil (독일) is the Korean pronunciation of the former Japanese name. The compound coined by the Japanese was adapted into Korean, so its characters 獨逸 are not pronounced do+itsu as in Japanese, but dok+il = Dogil. Until the 1980s, South Korean primary textbooks adopted Doichillanteu (도이칠란트) which approximates the German pronunciation [ˈdɔʏtʃlant] of Deutschland[citation needed].
The official North Korean name toich'willandŭ (도이췰란드) approximates the German pronunciation [ˈdɔʏtʃlant] of Deutschland. Traditionally Dogil (독일) had been used in North Korea until the 1990s[citation needed]. Use of the Chinese name (in its Korean pronunciation Deokguk, 덕국) is attested for the early 20th century[citation needed]. It is now uncommon.
Sign languages
The sign name for Germany in German Sign Language is a one-handed sign: the hand is placed on the forehead, palm facing sideways, extended index finger facing upwards, with the thumb keeping the other fingers tucked against the palm. The sign may also be used to mean ‘German language’ or ‘German person’, as well as ‘police’ or ‘police officer’.[25] This sign is an iconic one, emulating the shape of a Pickelhaube. It is one of the two signs for ‘Germany’ in American Sign Language, alongside another, in which the dominant hand’s wrist is placed on that of the non-dominant hand in front of the signer’s chest, with both hands’ fingers spread and wiggling.[26] Several other languages also use the Pickelhaube variation as well, with some modifications; others use unrelated signs.[27]
Etymological history
The terminology for "Germany", the "German states" and "Germans" is complicated by the unusual history of Germany over the last 2000 years. This can cause confusion in German and English, as well in other languages. While the notion of Germans and Germany is older, it is only since 1871 that there has been a
Starting with Charlemagne, the territory of modern Germany was within the realm of the Holy Roman Empire. It was a union of relatively independent rulers who each ruled their own territories. This empire was called in German Heiliges Römisches Reich, with the addition from the late Middle Ages of Deutscher Nation (of (the) German nation), showing that the former idea of a universal realm had given way to a concentration on the German territories.
In 19th- and 20th-century historiography, the Holy Roman Empire was often referred to as Deutsches Reich, creating a link to the later nation state of 1871. Besides the official Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation, common expressions are Altes Reich (the old Reich) and Römisch-Deutsches Kaiserreich (Roman-German Imperial Realm).
Pre-modern Germany (pre-1800)
Roman authors mentioned a number of tribes they called Germani—the tribes did not themselves use the term. After 1500 these tribes were identified by linguists as belonging to a group of Germanic language speakers (which include modern languages like German, English and Dutch). Germani (for the people) and Germania (for the area where they lived) became the common Latin words for Germans and Germany.
Germans call themselves Deutsche (living in Deutschland). Deutsch is an adjective (
In the
1800–1871
The French emperor, Napoleon, forced the Emperor of Austria to step down as Holy Roman Emperor in 1806. Some of the German countries were then collected into the Confederation of the Rhine, which remained a military alliance under the "protection" of Napoleon, rather than consolidating into an actual confederation. After the fall of Napoleon in 1815, these states created a German Confederation. Some member states, such as Prussia and Austria, had only a part of their territories included within the confederation, while other member states brought territories to the alliance that included people, like Poles and the Czechs, who did not speak German as their native tongue. In addition, there were also substantial German speaking populations that remained outside the confederation.
In 1841 Hoffmann von Fallersleben wrote the song Das Lied der Deutschen,[28] giving voice to the dreams of a unified Germany (Deutschland über Alles) to replace the alliance of independent states. In this era of emerging national movements, "Germany" was used only as a reference to a particular geographical area.
In 1866/1867 Prussia and her allies left the German Confederation. After Austria was defeated in the German War of summer 1866, it acknowledged the dissolution of the confederation. Prussia was free to create a new alliance, called the North German Confederation. It became a federal state with its constitution of 1 July 1867. The remaining South German countries, with the exception of Austria and Liechtenstein, joined the country in 1870.[29]
German Federation
The first nation state named "Germany" began in 1871; before that Germany referred to a geographical entity comprising many states, much as "the Balkans" is used today, or the term "America" was used by the founders of "the United States of America".
In German constitutional history, the expressions Reich (reign, realm, empire) and Bund (federation, confederation) are somewhat interchangeable. Sometimes they even co-existed in the same constitution: for example in the German Empire (1871–1918) the parliament had the name
Due to the history of Germany, the principle of federalism is strong. Only the state of Hitler (1933–1945) and the state of the communists (East Germany, 1949–1990) were centralist states. As a result, the words Reich and Bund were used more frequently than in other countries, to distinguish between imperial or federal institutions and those at a subnational level. For example, a modern federal German minister is called Bundesminister, in contrast to a Landesminister who holds office in a state such as Rhineland-Palatinate or Lower Saxony.
As a result of the Hitler regime, and maybe also of Imperial Germany up to 1919, many Germans – especially those on the political left – have negative feelings about the word Reich.[citation needed]
Bund is another word also used in contexts other than politics. Many associations in Germany are federations or have a federalised structure and differentiate between a Bundesebene (federal/national level) and a Landesebene (level of the regional states), in a similar way to the political bodies. An example is the German Football Association Deutscher Fußballbund. (The word Bundestrainer, referring to the national football coach, does not refer to the Federal Republic, but to the Fußballbund itself.)
In other German speaking countries, the words Reich (Austria before 1918) and Bund (Austria since 1918, Switzerland) are used too. An organ named Bundesrat exists in all three of them: in Switzerland it is the government and in Germany and Austria the house of regional representatives.
Greater Germany and "Großdeutsches Reich"
In the 19th century before 1871, Germans, for example in the
In 1919, the Weimar Constitution postulated the inclusion of Deutsch-Österreich (the German-speaking parts of Austria), but the
In National Socialist propaganda, Austria was also called
German Empire and Weimar Republic of Germany, 1871–1945
The official name of the German state in 1871 became Deutsches Reich, linking itself to the former Reich before 1806 and the rudimentary Reich of 1848/1849. This expression was commonly used in official papers and also on maps, while in other contexts Deutschland was more frequently used.
Those Germans living within its boundaries were called Reichsdeutsche, those outside were called Volksdeutsche (ethnic Germans). The latter expression referred mainly to the German minorities in Eastern Europe. Germans living abroad (for example in America) were and are called Auslandsdeutsche.
After the forced abdication of the Emperor in 1918, and the republic was declared, Germany was informally called the Deutsche Republik. The official name of the state remained the same. The term Weimar Republic, after the city where the National Assembly gathered, came up in the 1920s, but was not commonly used until the 1950s. It became necessary to find an appropriate term for the Germany between 1871 and 1919: Kaiserliches Deutschland (Imperial Germany) or (Deutsches) Kaiserreich.
Nazi Germany
After Adolf Hitler took power in 1933, the official name of the state was still the same. For a couple of years, Hitler used the expression Drittes Reich (
Germany divided 1945–1990
After the defeat in World War II, Germany was occupied by the troops of Britain, France, the United States and Soviet Union. Berlin was a case of its own, as it was situated on the territory of the Soviet zone but divided into four sectors. The western sectors were later called West Berlin, the other one East Berlin. The communists tended to consider the Soviet sector of Berlin as a part of GDR; West Berlin was, according to them, an independent political unit. In the GDR Westberlin was the preferred spelling to de-emphasize the relationship to Berlin, Hauptstadt der DDR (the GDR capital).
After 1945, Deutsches Reich was still used for a couple of years (in 1947, for instance, when the Social Democrats gathered in Nuremberg they called their rally Reichsparteitag). In many contexts, the German people still called their country Germany, even after two German states were created in 1949.
Federal Republic of Germany
The Federal Republic of Germany, Bundesrepublik Deutschland, established in 1949, saw itself as the same state founded in 1867/71 but Reich gave place to Bund. For example, the Reichskanzler became the Bundeskanzler, reichsdeutsch became bundesdeutsch, Reichsbürger (citizen of the Reich) became Bundesbürger.
Germany as a whole was called Deutschland als Ganzes or Gesamtdeutschland, referring to Germany in the international borders of 1937 (before Hitler started to annex other countries). This resulted in all German (or pan germanique—a chauvinist concept) aspirations. In 1969 the Federal Ministry for All German Affairs was renamed the Federal Ministry for Intra-German Relations.
Until 1970, a number of expressions competed in the Federal Republic to designate the other German state (the communist German Democratic Republic). It was called Sowjetische Besatzungszone (SBZ, Soviet Zone of Occupation), Sowjetzone, Ostzone, Mitteldeutschland or Pankow (many GDR politicians lived or worked in Berlin-Pankow).
German Democratic Republic
In 1949, the communists, protected by the Soviet Union, established the Deutsche Demokratische Republik (DDR,
Federal Republic of Germany 1990–present
In 1990 the
The official name of the country is Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland). The terms "Westdeutschland" and "Ostdeutschland" are still used for the western and the eastern parts of the German territory, respectively.
-
The Holy Roman Empire, 1789
-
German Confederation, 1815–1866
-
Germany (Deutsches Reich), 1871–1918
-
Germany (Deutsches Reich), 1919–1937
-
Nazi Germany, 1944
See also
- Various terms used for Germans
- German placename etymology
- List of country name etymologies
- Territorial evolution of Germany
Notes
- Proto-Germanic*Þeudiskaz, meaning "of the people", "of the folk"
- ^ While the Bulgarian name of the country belongs to the second category, the demonym is "немски" (nemski), belonging to the fifth category
- ^ While the Italian name of the country belongs to the second category, the demonym is tedesco, belonging to the first category
- ^ The common demonym in Romanian is german, but the popular term neamț can be heard too
- ^ While the Russian name of the country belongs to the second category, the demonym is "немецкий" (nemetskiy), belonging to the fifth category
- ^ While the Sardinian name of the country belongs to the second category, the demonym is "tedescu", belonging to the first category
- ^ Němьcь 'a foreigner, lit. a mute, e.g. who doesn't speak Slavonic' or unlikely from the name of the ancient Nemetes tribe. See below.
- ^ Possibly from the name of the Scandinavian Vagoth tribe or a Baltic word meaning "speak" or "war cry"
References
- ^ a b Glushak, Vasiliy (29 October 2022), The Content of the Concept Germans (Rus. NEMETS) in the Ancient Russian Chronicles of the 10th-16th Centuries, Rochester, NY, retrieved 27 March 2024
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ "Amtliche Übersetzungen für "Bundesrepublik Deutschland"" (PDF). auswaertiges-amt.de. p. 5. Retrieved 10 June 2021.
- ^ R.V.Sowa, Wörterbuch des Dialekts der deutschen Zigeuner. Westliche Mundart (Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 11) Leipzig 1898 ("Dictionary of the dialect of the German Gypsies"; digitized by archive.org; (older use?); accessed .
- ^ a b c Kamusella, Tom. "Crocodile Skin, or the Fraternal Curtain (pp 742–759). 2012. The Antioch Review. Vol 70, No 4, Fall" – via www.academia.edu.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ "Norway". Etymonline. Retrieved 21 August 2007.
- ISBN 978-3-19-107891-1.
- ISBN 9780030777455.
- ISBN 0-9761082-9-1.
- ^ "Itwêwina: The online Cree dictionary".
- Diccionario de la Real Academia Española. The first sense refers to Lower Saxony.
- ^ ISBN 978-3-031-09722-5, retrieved 5 January 2023
- ^ see Thiois in the French wikipedia
- ISBN 0-520-08511-6.
- ^ Tacitus: "Germania" par 28
- ISBN 3-11-013749-6.
- ^ a b c Kelton, Dwight H. (1889). Indian Names and History of the Sault Ste. Marie Canal. Detroit: Detroit Free Press. p. 21.
- ^ a b Vasmer, Max (1986). Etymological dictionary of the Russian language (in Russian). Vol. III. Moscow: Progress. p. 62.
- ^ "The Journal of Indo-European Studies". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 3 December 1974 – via Google Books.
- ^ "(in Polish) Etymology of the Polish-language word for Germany". Archived from the original on 2 April 2008. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ C. Iulius Caesar, "Commentariorum Libri VII De Bello Gallico", VI, 25. Latin text
- ^ P. CORNELIVS TACITVS ANNALES, 12, 27. Latin text
- ^ Emil Bretschneider (1888), Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources: Fragments Towards the Knowledge of the Geography and History of Central and Western Asia from the 13th to the 17th Century, vol. 1, Trübner & Co., p. 322.
- ^ E. Fraenkel, Litauisches etymol. Wörterbuch (Indogerm. Bibliothek II,7) Heidelberg/Göttingen 1965, page 1272
- ^ Kōjien, 5th edition
- ^ "83". Digitales Wörterbuch des Deutches Gebärdensprache (in German). Hamburg, Germany: University of Hamburg. Archived from the original on 6 June 2023. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
- ^ Vicars, William G. "Germany". American Sign Language University. Sacramento, California. Archived from the original on 1 December 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
- ^ "🇺🇸 Germany". Spread the Sign. European Sign Language Center. Archived from the original on 22 June 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
- ^ Note: Deutschlandlied has been the national anthem since 1922
- ^ Heinrich August Winkler: Der lange Weg nach Westen. Deutsche Geschichte 1806–1933, Bonn 2002, p. 209.
- ^ Heinrich August Winkler: Der lange Weg nach Westen. Deutsche Geschichte 1933–1990, Bonn 2004, p. 6/7.
Further reading
- Bithell, Jethro, ed. Germany: A Companion to German Studies (5th edition 1955), 578pp; essays on German literature, music, philosophy, art and, especially, history. online edition Archived 11 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- Buse, Dieter K. ed. Modern Germany: An Encyclopedia of History, People, and Culture 1871–1990 (2 vol 1998)
- Clark, Christopher. Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947 (2006)
- Detwiler, Donald S. Germany: A Short History (3rd ed. 1999) 341pp; Germany A Short History Archived 31 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine; by Donald S. Detwiler;
- Fulbrook, Mary. A Concise History of Germany (2004)
- Maehl, William Harvey. Germany in Western Civilization (1979), 833pp
- Ozment, Steven. A Mighty Fortress: A New History of the German People (2005)
- Reinhardt, Kurt F. Germany: 2000 Years (2 vols., 1961), stress on cultural topics
External links
The dictionary definition of Germany at Wiktionary