Christina, Queen of Sweden
Christina | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Charles X Gustav | |||||
Regent | Axel Oxenstierna (1632–1644) | ||||
Born | 18 December [O.S. 8 December] 1626 Tre Kronor Castle, Stockholm, Sweden | ||||
Died | 19 April 1689 Rome, Papal States | (aged 62)||||
Burial | 22 June 1689 | ||||
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House | Vasa | ||||
Father | Gustav II Adolf of Sweden | ||||
Mother | Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg | ||||
Religion | Lutheran (1626–1654) Catholic (1654–1689) | ||||
Signature |
Christina (Swedish: Kristina; 18 December [O.S. 8 December] 1626 – 19 April 1689) was a member of the House of Vasa, and the Queen of Sweden in her own right from 1632 until her abdication in 1654.[a] She succeeded her father Gustavus Adolphus upon his death at the Battle of Lützen in 1632, but began ruling the Swedish Empire when she reached the age of eighteen in 1644.[7]
The Swedish queen is remembered as one of the most learned women of the 17th century.[8] She was fond of books, manuscripts, paintings, and sculptures. With her interest in religion, philosophy, mathematics, and alchemy, she attracted many scientists to Stockholm, wanting the city to become the "Athens of the North".[9][10] The Peace of Westphalia allowed her to establish an academy or university when and wherever she wanted.[11]
In 1644, she began issuing copper in lumps as large as fifteen kilograms to serve as currency. Christina's financial extravagance brought the state to the verge of bankruptcy, and the financial difficulties caused public unrest. Christina argued for peace to end the Thirty Years' War and received indemnity. Meanwhile, she caused a scandal when she decided not to marry,[12] and when she converted to Catholicism secretly in Brussels and publicly in Innsbruck. The "Minerva of the North" relinquished the throne to her cousin, and settled in Rome.[13]
Pope Alexander VII described Christina as "a queen without a realm, a Christian without faith, and a woman without shame."[12] Notwithstanding, she played a leading part in the theatrical and musical communities and protected many Baroque artists, composers, and musicians.
Christina, who was the guest of five consecutive popes[14] and a symbol of the Counter-Reformation, is one of the few women buried in the Vatican Grottoes. Her unconventional lifestyle and occasional masculine style of dressing have been featured in countless novels, plays, operas, and film. In most biographies of Christina, her gender and cultural identity play an important role.[15]
Early life
Christina was born in the royal castle Tre Kronor. Her parents were the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus and his German wife, Maria Eleonora. Gustavus shared Maria's interest in architecture and her love of music. They had already had three children: two daughters (a stillborn princess in 1621, then the first Princess Christina, who was born in 1623 and died the following year) and a stillborn son in May 1625.[b] Excited expectations surrounded Maria Eleonora's fourth pregnancy in 1626. When the baby was born, it was first thought to be a boy as it was "hairy" and screamed "with a strong, hoarse voice."[16][c] She later wrote in her autobiography that "Deep embarrassment spread among the women when they discovered their mistake." The king, though, was very happy, saying, "She'll be clever, she has made fools of us all!"[17] Gustav Adolf was closely attached to his daughter, whereas her mother remained aloof in her disappointment at the child being a girl.[citation needed] In the year after Christina's birth, Maria Eleonora was described as being in a state of hysteria owing to her husband's absences. She showed little affection for her daughter and was not allowed any influence in Christina's upbringing. He was worried that her instability might pass on to their daughter.[18]
The Crown of Sweden was hereditary in the
Regency
In June 1630, when Christina was three years old,[20] Gustav Adolf left for Germany to defend Protestantism and became involved the Thirty Years' War. He secured his daughter's right to inherit the throne, in case he never returned, and gave orders to Axel Gustafsson Banér,[13] his marshal, that Christina should receive an education of the type normally only afforded to boys.[21]
When Gustav Adolf did not come home as expected after the summer campaign of 1630, Maria wrote to
Her mother, of the House of Hohenzollern, was said to be the most beautiful queen in Europe, but she was also considered hysterical, unstable and overly emotional.[18] It is suggested that she inherited madness, from both the paternal and maternal lines.[22] However, this image of the hysterical, depressive and profligate queen dowager, which has become part of historiography, has been put into perspective in more recent research, first in the 1980s by the archivist Åke Kromnov,[22] among others, and more recently in the monograph "Drottningen som sa nej" by Moa Matthis, published in 2010.
After the king died on the battlefield on 6 November 1632, Maria Eleonora returned to Sweden with the embalmed body of her husband. The 7-year-old Queen Christina came in solemn procession to Nyköping to receive her mother. Maria Eleonora declared that the burial should not take place during her lifetime - she often spoke of shortening her life - or at least should be postponed as long as possible.[22] She also demanded that the coffin be kept open, and went to see it regularly, patting it and taking no notice of the putrefaction. They tried to persuade Maria not to visit the corpse so often. Axel Oxenstierna managed to have the corpse interred in Riddarholmen Church on 22 June 1634, but had to post guards after she tried to dig it up.[23] The grief suggests mental instability.[24]
Maria Eleanora had been indifferent to her daughter but now, belatedly, Christina became the center of her mother's attention. Gustav Adolf had decided that in the event of his death, his daughter should be cared for by his half-sister,
In 1638, after the death of her aunt and foster mother, the Royal Regency Council under Axel Oxenstierna saw the need to appoint a new foster mother to the underage monarch, which resulted in a reorganization of the queen's household. In order to prevent the young queen from being dependent upon a single individual and favorite mother figure, the Royal Council decided to split the office of head lady-in-waiting (responsible for the queen's female courtiers) and the office royal governess (or foster-mother) in four, with two women appointed to share each office. Accordingly, Ebba Leijonhufvud and Christina Natt och Dag were appointed to share the position of royal governess and foster mother with the title Upptuktelse-Förestånderska ('Castigation Mistress'), while Beata Oxenstierna and Ebba Ryning were appointed to share the position of head lady-in-waiting, all four with the formal rank and title of Hovmästarinna.[30]
The Royal Council's method of giving Queen Christina several foster mothers to avoid her forming an attachment to a single person appears to have been effective, as Christina did not mention her foster mothers directly in her memoirs and did not seem to have formed an attachment to any of them; in fact, with only a few exceptions, such as Ebba Sparre, Lady Jane Ruthven and Louise van der Nooth, Christina did not show any interest in any of her female courtiers, and she generally mentions them in her memoirs only to compare herself favorably toward them by referring to herself as more masculine than they.[30]
Christina was educated as a royal male would have been. The theologian
Reign
In 1644, Christina was declared an adult, although the coronation was postponed because of the Torstenson War. In the Treaty of Brömsebro Denmark added the isles of Gotland and Ösel to Christina's domain while Norway lost the districts of Jämtland and Härjedalen to her. Under Christina's rule, Sweden, now virtually controlling the Baltic Sea, had unrestricted access to the North Sea and was no longer encircled by Denmark–Norway.[31]
Chancellor Oxenstierna soon discovered that her political views differed from his own. In 1645, he sent his son, Johan Oxenstierna, to the Peace Congress in the Westphalian city of Osnabrück, to argue against peace with the Holy Roman Empire. Christina, however, wanted peace at any cost and sent her own delegate, Johan Adler Salvius.
The
Shortly before the conclusion of the peace settlement, she admitted
Patronage of the arts
In 1645, Christina invited
In 1649, 760 paintings, 170 marble and 100 bronze statues, 33,000 coins and medallions, 600 pieces of crystal, 300 scientific instruments, manuscripts and books (including the Sanctae Crucis laudibus by
Her ambitions naturally demanded a wide-ranging correspondence. Not infrequently, she sat and wrote far into the night, while the servants came and went with new wax candles. The "
Christina was interested in theatre, especially the plays of
Descartes
In 1646, Christina's good friend, the French ambassador Pierre Chanut, met and corresponded with the philosopher René Descartes, asking him for a copy of his Meditations. Upon showing the queen some of the letters, Christina became interested in beginning a correspondence with Descartes. She invited him to Sweden, but Descartes was reluctant until she asked him to organize a scientific academy. Christina sent a ship to pick up the philosopher and 2,000 books.[49] Descartes arrived on 4 October 1649. He resided with Chanut, and finished his Passions of the Soul. It is highly unlikely Descartes wrote a "Ballet de la Naissance de la Paix", performed on her birthday.[50] On the day after, 19 December 1649, he probably started his private lessons for the queen. With Christina's strict schedule he was invited to the cold and draughty castle at 5:00 am daily to discuss philosophy and religion. Soon it became clear they did not like each other; she disapproved of his mechanical view, and he did not appreciate her interest in Ancient Greek.[51] On 15 January Descartes wrote he had seen Christina only four or five times.[52] On 1 February 1650 Descartes caught a cold. He died ten days later, early in the morning of 11 February 1650, and according to Chanut the cause of his death was pneumonia.[53][h]
Marriage issue
Already at the age of nine Christina was impressed by the Catholic religion and the merits of
Coronation
Christina's coronation took place on 22 October 1650. Christina went to the castle of Jacobsdal where she boarded a coronation carriage draped in black velvet embroidered in gold and pulled by three white horses. The procession to Storkyrkan was so long that when the first carriages arrived, the last ones had not yet left Jacobsdal (a distance of roughly 10.5 km or 6.5 miles). All four estates were invited to dine at the castle. Fountains at the marketplace splashed out wine for three days, a whole roast ox was served, and illuminations sparkled, followed by a themed parade (The Illustrious Splendors of Felicity) on 24 October.[62]
Religion and health
Her tutor, Johannes Matthiae, influenced by John Dury and Comenius, who since 1638 had been working on a new Swedish school system, represented a gentler attitude than most Lutherans. In 1644, he suggested a new church order, but it was voted down as this was interpreted as Crypto-Calvinism. Queen Christina defended him against the advice of Chancellor Oxenstierna, but three years later, the proposal had to be withdrawn. In 1647, the clergy wanted to introduce the Book of Concord (Swedish: Konkordieboken) – a book defining correct Lutheranism versus heresy, making some aspects of free theological thinking impossible. Matthiae was strongly opposed to this and was again backed by Christina. The Book of Concord was not introduced.[65]
In 1651, after reigning almost twenty years, working at least ten hours a day, Christina had what some have interpreted as a
The Queen had long conversations about
Abdication
On 26 February 1649, Christina announced that she had decided not to marry and instead wanted her first cousin Charles Gustav to be heir to the throne. While the nobility objected to this, the three other estates – clergy, burghers, and peasants – accepted it. She agreed to stay on the condition the councils never again asked her to marry. In 1651, Christina lost much of her popularity after the beheading of Arnold Johan Messenius, together with his 17-year-old son, who had accused her of serious misbehavior and of being a "Jezebel".[77][78] According to them "Christina was bringing everything to ruin, and that she cared for nothing but sport and pleasure."[79]
In 1653, she founded the
Her plan to convert
Christina abdicated her throne on 6 June 1654 in favor of Charles Gustav.[82] During the abdication ceremony at Uppsala Castle, Christina wore her regalia, which were ceremonially removed from her, one by one. Per Brahe, who was supposed to remove the crown, did not move, so she had to take the crown off herself. Dressed in a simple white taffeta dress, she gave her farewell speech with a faltering voice, thanked everyone, and left the throne to Charles X Gustav, who was dressed in black. Per Brahe felt that she "stood there as pretty as an angel." Charles Gustav was crowned later on that day. Christina left the country within a few days.
Departure and exile
In the summer of 1654, Christina left Sweden in men's clothing with the help of Bernardino de Rebolledo, and rode as Count Dohna, through Denmark. Relations between the two countries were still so tense that a former Swedish queen could not have traveled safely in Denmark. Christina had already packed and shipped abroad valuable books, paintings, statues, and tapestries from her Stockholm castle, leaving its treasures severely depleted.[87][88]
Christina visited
In August, she arrived in the
In September, she left for Italy with her entourage of 255 persons and 247 horses. The pope's messenger, the librarian
Setting off to Rome
The southbound journey through Italy was planned in detail by the
Christina's visit to Rome was the triumph of Pope
Palazzo Farnese
Christina had settled down in the
Twenty-nine-year-old Christina gave occasion to much gossip when socializing freely with men her own age. One of them was
Visits to France and Italy
King
On 8 September she arrived in Paris and was shown around; ladies were shocked by her masculine appearance and demeanor and the unguarded freedom of her conversation. When visiting the ballet with la Grande Mademoiselle, she, as the latter recalls, "surprised me very much – applauding the parts which pleased her, taking God to witness, throwing herself back in her chair, crossing her legs, resting them on the arms of her chair, and assuming other postures, such as I had never seen taken but by Travelin and Jodelet, two famous buffoons... She was in all respects a most extraordinary creature".[103]
Christina was treated with respect by the young Louis XIV and his mother, Anne of Austria, in Compiègne. On 22 September 1656, the arrangement between her and Louis XIV was ready. He would recommend Christina as queen to the Kingdom of Naples and serve as guarantor against Spanish aggression. As Queen of Naples, she would be financially independent of the Swedish king, and also capable of negotiating peace between France and Spain.[q]
On her way back Christina visited French courtesan and author
The death of Monaldeschi
On 15 October 1657 apartments were assigned to her at the
Father Le Bel was told to have him buried inside the church, and Christina, seemingly unfazed, paid an abbey to say a number of Masses for his soul. She "was sorry that she had been forced to undertake this execution, but claimed that justice had been carried out for his crime and betrayal.[108]
Mazarin, who had sent her old friend Chanut, advised Christina to place the blame due to a brawl among courtiers, but she insisted that she alone was responsible for the act. She wrote to Louis XIV who two weeks later paid her a friendly visit without mentioning it. In Rome, people felt differently; Monaldeschi had been an Italian nobleman, murdered by a foreign barbarian with Santinelli as one of her executioners. The letters proving his guilt are gone; Christina left them with Le Bel and only he confirmed that they existed. Christina never revealed what was in the letters, but according to Le Bel, it is supposed to have dealt with her "amours", either with Monaldeschi or another person. She herself wrote her version of the story for circulation in Europe.
The killing of Monaldeschi in a French palace was legal, since Christina had judicial rights over the members of her court, as her vindicator
She would gladly have visited England, but she received no encouragement from Cromwell and stayed in Fontainebleau as nobody else offered her a place. Anne of Austria, the mother of Louis XIV, was impatient to be rid of her cruel guest; Christina had no choice but to depart. She returned to Rome and dismissed Santinelli in 1659, claiming to be her ambassador in Vienna without her approval.[110]
Back to Rome
On 15 May 1658, Christina arrived in Rome for the second time, but this time it was definitely no triumph. With the execution of Monaldeschi, her popularity was lost.
The Riario Palace became her home for the rest of her life. She decorated the walls with tapestries by
Revisiting Sweden
In April 1660 Christina was informed that Charles X Gustav had died in February. His son, Charles XI, was only five years old. That summer, she went to Sweden, pointing out that she had left the throne to her first cousin and his descendant, so if Charles XI died, she would take over the throne again. But as she was a Catholic that was impossible, and the clergy refused to let the priests in her entourage celebrate any Masses. Christina left Stockholm and went to Norrköping. Eventually she submitted to a second renunciation of the throne, spending a year in Hamburg to get her finances in order on her way back to Rome. Already in 1654, she had left her income to the banker Diego Teixeira in return for him sending her a monthly allowance and covering her debts in Antwerp. She visited the Teixeira family at Jungfernstieg and entertained them in her own lodgings.[116]
In the summer of 1662, she arrived in Rome for the third time, followed by some fairly happy years. A variety of complaints and allegations made her resolve in 1666 once more to return to Sweden. She proceeded no farther than
On 16 September 1668, John II Casimir abdicated the Polish–Lithuanian throne and left to France. The Polish monarchy was elective and Christina, as a member of the House of Vasa, put herself forward as a candidate for the throne.[121] She recommended herself being Catholic, an old maid and intended to remain one.[122] She had Pope Clement IX's support; but her failure seemed to please her since this meant that she could return to her beloved Azzolino.[122] She left the city on 20 October 1668.[123] [124]
Later life
Christina's fourth and last entry in Rome took place on 22 November 1668. Clement IX often visited her; they had a shared interest in plays. Christina organized meetings of the Accademia in the Great Hall[125] which had ‘a platform for singers and players’.[126] When the pope suffered a stroke, she was among the few he wanted to see at his deathbed. In 1671, Christina established Rome's first public theatre in a former jail, Tor di Nona.[127]
The new pope,
In 1656, Christina had appointed Carissimi as her maestro di cappella del concerto di camera. Lars Englund of Uppsala University' Department of Musicology has hypothesized that Christina's early involvement with Italian music, and in particular church music from Rome, "was part of a deliberate self-transformation, from a ruling Lutheran regent to a Catholic Queen without a land."[138]
Christina's politics and rebellious spirit persisted long after her abdication of power. When Louis XIV revoked the
Christina remained very tolerant towards the beliefs of others all her life. She on her part felt more attracted to the views of the Spanish priest
Death and burial
In February 1689, the 62-year-old Christina fell seriously ill after a visit to the temples in
Christina had asked for a simple burial in the
In 1702,
Christina had named Azzolino her sole heir to make sure her debts were settled, but he was too ill and worn out even to join her funeral, and died in June the same year. His nephew, Pompeo Azzolino, was his sole heir, and he rapidly sold off Christina's art collections.
Art collector
Until 1649, when Christina was twenty-three, the Swedish royal art collection was unimpressive, with good
Christina was entranced by her new possessions, and remained a keen collector for the rest of her life, and as a female art collector is only exceeded by
Most of the Prague booty remained in Sweden after Christina's departure for exile: she only took about 70 to 80 paintings with her, including about 25 portraits of her friends and family, and some 50 paintings, mostly Italian, from the Prague loot, as well as statues, jewels, 72 tapestries, and various other works of art. She was concerned that the royal collections would be claimed by her successor, and prudently sent them ahead to Antwerp in a ship in August 1653, almost a year before she abdicated, an early sign of her intentions.[146]
Christina greatly expanded her collection during her exile in Rome, for example adding the five small
The Riario Palace finally provided a suitable setting for her collection, and the Sala dei Quadri ("Paintings Room") had her finest works, with thirteen
Christina liked to commission portraits of herself, friends, and also notable people she had not met, from 1647 sending David Beck, her Dutch court painter, to several countries to paint notabilities.[152] She encouraged artists to study her collection, including the drawings, and exhibited some of her paintings, but apart from portraits she commissioned or bought few works by living painters, except for drawings. Sculptors did rather better, and Bernini was a friend, while others were commissioned to restore the large collection of classical sculpture which she had begun to assemble while still in Sweden.[153]
On her death she left her collection to Cardinal Decio Azzolino, who himself died within a year, leaving the collection to his nephew, who sold it to Don Livio
At first, removing her collections from Sweden was seen as a great loss to the country; but in 1697, Stockholm castle burned down with the loss of almost everything inside, so they would have been destroyed if they had remained there. Today very few major works from her collection still remain in the country. The sculpture collection was sold to the King of Spain and mostly remains in Spanish museums and palaces.
Appearance
Historical accounts of Christina include regular reference to her
According to Christina's autobiography, the midwives at her birth first believed her to be a boy because she was "completely hairy and had a coarse and strong voice". Such ambiguity did not end with her birth; Christina made cryptic statements about her "constitution" and body throughout her life. Christina also believed a wet nurse had carelessly dropped her to the floor when she was a baby. A shoulder bone broke, leaving one shoulder higher than the other for the rest of her life.[v] A number of her contemporaries made reference to the differing height of her shoulders.[163]
As a child, Christina's mannerisms could probably best be described as those of a
As an adult, it was said that Christina "walked like a man, sat and rode like a man, and could eat and swear like the roughest soldiers".
While Christina may not have been alone in her own time for choosing masculine dress (Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, for example, was known for dressing the same way), she also had physical features some described as masculine.[73][w][166] According to Henry II, Duke of Guise, "she wears men's shoes and her voice and nearly all her actions are masculine".[167] When she arrived in Lyon, she again wore a toque and had styled her hair like that of a young man. It was noted that she also wore large amounts of powder and face cream. In one account she "was sunburnt, and she looked like a sort of Egyptian street girl, very strange, and more alarming than attractive".[73]
Living in Rome, she formed a close relationship with
As an older woman, Christina's style changed a little. François Maximilian Misson (visiting Rome in the spring of April 1688) wrote:
She is over sixty years of age, very small of stature, exceedingly fat, and corpulent. Her complexion and voice and face are those of a man. She has a big nose, large blue eyes, blonde eyebrows, and a double chin from which sprout several tufts of beard. Her upper lip protrudes a little. Her hair is a light chestnut colour, and only a palms breadth in length; she wears it powdered and standing on end, uncombed. She is very smiling and obliging. You will hardly believe her clothes: a man's jacket, in black satin, reaching to her knees, and buttoned all the way down; a very short black skirt, and men's shoes; a very large bow of black ribbons instead of a cravat; and a belt drawn tightly under her stomach, revealing its rotundity all too well.[73]
Gender ambiguity and sexuality
In her Autobiography (1681), Christina is flirting with her
Bargrave recounted that Christina's relationship with Azzolino was both "familiar" (intimate) and "amorous" and that Azzolino had been sent (by the Pope) to Romania as punishment for maintaining it.[99] Buckley, on the other hand, believed there was "in Christina a curious squeamishness with regard to sex" and that "a sexual relationship between herself and Azzolino, or any other man, seems unlikely".[73] Based on historical accounts of Christina's physicality, some scholars believe that she may have been an intersex individual.[73][173][58]
In 1965, these conflicting accounts led to an investigation of Christina's remains.
Some of the symptoms could be due to
Legacy
The complex character of Christina has inspired numerous plays, books, and operatic works, including:
- Jacopo Foroni's 1849 opera Cristina, regina di Svezia is based on the events surrounding her abdication. Other operas based on her life include Alessandro Nini's Cristina di Svezia (1840), Giuseppe Lillo's Cristina di Svezia (1841), and Sigismond Thalberg's Cristina di Svezia (1855)
- August Strindberg's play Kristina (1901)[citation needed]
- Zacharias Topeliuswrote a historical allegory Stjärnornas Kungabarn (1899–1900)
- Christina's life was fictionalized in the classic feature film Queen Christina (1933). This film, starring Greta Garbo, depicted a heroine whose life diverged considerably from that of the real Christina.
- In the Italian film Love and Poison (1950/52) Christina is played by actress Lois Maxwell.
- Kaari Utrio published Kartanonherra ja kaunis Kristin (1969).
- In The Abdication (1974), starring Liv Ullmann, Christina arrives in the Vatican and falls in love with cardinal Azzelino. The script was based on a play by Ruth Wolff.
- Herta J. Enevoldsen wrote two novels in Danish on her life, Heltekongens Datter (1975) and En Dronning Værdig (1976).
- Laura Ruohonen wrote "Queen C" (2003), which presents a woman centuries ahead of her time who lives by her own rules.
- In Assiti Shardsuniverse, she is a major character.
- Comedian Jade Esteban Estrada portrayed her (2004) in the solo musical ICONS: The Lesbian and Gay History of the World Vol. 2.
- Michel Marc Bouchard's play Christina, The Girl King, is a biographical depiction of Queen Christina's short rule premiered in 2012.
- In Mika Kaurismäki's 2015 film, The Girl King, based on the play, she is portrayed as a lesbian, lover of Countess Ebba Sparre.
- She is featured as the leader of the Swedish civilization in the video game expansion pack Civilization VI: Gathering Storm with her name spelled in Swedish (Kristina). She is depicted as having a strong focus on culture and art.
In 1636–1637, Peter Minuit and Samuel Blommaert negotiated with the government to found New Sweden, the first Swedish colony in the New World. In 1638, Minuit erected Fort Christina in what is now Wilmington, Delaware; the Christina River was also named after her, as well as the Queen Village neighborhood in Center City, Philadelphia.
- Kristiine District of Tallinn, Estonia.
- Kristinestad, Finland.
Family tree
Charles IX | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Maria Eleonora | Gustavus Adolphus | Catherine | John Casimir | Carl Gyllenhielm | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Christina | Charles X Gustav | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Notes
- Riddarholmskyrkanin Stockholm.
- ^ "I was born covered with hair from my head to my knees, only my face, arms and legs were free. I was shiny all over and I had a rough, strong voice".
- Karl Gustav, who inherited the throne after Christina.
- ^ Maria Eleonora complained to her brother about her treatment. In July 1640, she secretly left Sweden in order to escape to her family. With the consent of King Christian IV of Denmark, under adventurous circumstances, she first fled to Gotland and then stayed at the Danish court in Nykøbing Falster.[29] In 1648 she returned to Sweden and lived at Nyköping.
- dialect.)
- ^ There are seven gold coins known to exist bearing the effigy of Queen Christina: a unique 1649 five ducat,[34] and six 1645 10 ducat specimen.[35]
- ^ Over time there have been speculations regarding the death of the philosopher.[54] Theodor Ebert claimed that Descartes did not meet his end by being exposed to the harsh Swedish winter climate, as philosophers have been fond of repeating, but by arsenic poisoning.[55][56] It has been suggested Descartes was an obstacle to Christina's becoming a true Catholic.[57]
- Nikolaes Heinsius the Younger arrived in Rome in 1679, when he became her personal physician until about 1687. Cesare Macchiati was her physician until her death.[69]
- Goswin Nickel rather than Francesco Piccolominiwho had died in June of that year.
- ^ The Diet also argued that Oxenstierna's policy of giving away crown lands, in the hope that they would yield more revenue when taxed than when farmed, benefited none but the aristocracy.[83]
- Virgin, but she refused.[92]
- ^ Bernini had decorated the gate with Christina's coat of arms (an ear of corn) beneath that of Pope Alexander (six mountains with a star above). Also today one can read the inscription Felici Faustoq Ingressui Anno Dom MDCLV ("to a happy and blessed entry in the year 1655").
- ^ Negri wrote eight letters about his walk through Scandinavia all the way up to "Capo Nord" in 1664.
- ^ He too had been a pupil of Johannes Matthiae, and his uncle had been Gustav Adolf's teacher. As a diplomat in Portugal, he had converted and asked for a transfer to Rome when he learnt of Christina's arrival.
- ^ Christina wrote him many letters during her travels. After her death, Azzolino burnt most of their correspondence; about 80 have survived. Some details were written in a code that was decrypted by Carl Bildt, in Rome around 1900.[101]
- ^ Mazarin however found another arrangement to ensure peace; he strengthened this with a marriage arrangement between Louis XIV and his first cousin, Maria Theresa of Spain – the wedding took place in 1660. But this was unknown to Christina, who sent different messengers to Mazarin to remind him of their plan.
- ^ Monaldeschi was a traitor, Santinelli had stolen from Christina' for years.[112]
- ^ In her basement there was a laboratory, where she, Giuseppe Francesco Borri and Azzolino experimented with alchemy.
- ^ From 2005 to 2011, her marble sarcophagus was positioned next to that of Pope John Paul II when his grave was moved.
- ^ Christina was portrayed on a gilt and bronze medallion, supported by a crowned skull. Three reliefs below represented her relinquishment of the Swedish throne and abjugation of Protestantism at Innsbruck, the scorn of the nobility, and faith triumphing over heresy. It is an unromantic likeness, for she is given a double chin and a prominent nose with flaring nostrils.
- ^ E. Essen-Möller and B. Guilliet suggest it had to do with her alleged intersex condition.[162]
- women riding horsesin mannish clothing.
References
- ^ .
- ^ J. Guinchard (1914). Sweden: Historical and statistical handbook. Stockholm: P. A. Norstedt & Söner. p. 188.
- ^ Stefan Donecker/Roland Steinacher (2009) Der König der Schweden, Goten und Vandalen. Königstitulatur und Vandalenrezeption im frühneuzeitlichen Schweden. In: Vergangenheit und Vergegenwärtigung. Frühes Mittelalter und europäische Erinnerungskultur. Ed. by Helmut Reimitz and Bernhard Zeller (= Forschungen zur Geschichte des Mittelalters 14; Wien 2009).
- ^ Stolpe 1974 pp. 142 & 145
- ^ Stefan Donecker/Roland Steinacher, Rex Vandalorum. The Debates on Wends and Vandals in Swedish Humanism as an Indicator for Early Modern Patterns of Ethnic Perception. In: Der Norden im Ausland – das Ausland im Norden. Formung und Transformation von Konzepten und Bildern des Anderen vom Mittelalter bis heute, ed. Sven Hakon Rossel (Wiener Studien zur Skandinavistik 15, Wien 2006) 242–252
- ^ A Journal of the Swedish Embassy in the Years 1653 and 1654, Vol II. by Whitlocke. 28 December 2005. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Project Gutenberg.
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Bibliography
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- Jonsson, L. Ann-Marie Nilsson & Greger Andersson (1994) Musiken i Sverige. Från forntiden till stormaktstidens slut 1720 ("Music in Sweden. From Antiquity to the end of the Great power era 1720") (in Swedish)
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- Meyer, Carolyn (2003). Kristina, the Girl King: Sweden, 1638.
- ISBN 1857099133
- Platen, Magnus von (1966). Christina of Sweden: Documents and Studies. Stockholm: National Museum.
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Further reading
- Christina, Queen of Sweden at Svenskt kvinnobiografiskt lexikon
- Kristina Brevoch skrifter (2006) SVENSKA KLASSIKER
External links
- "Kristina Wasa". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Project presentation Queen Christina of Sweden, the European
- Encyclopædia Britannica
- "Queen Christina of Sweden". About: Women's History. Archived from the original on 20 February 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2007.
- Coins of Sweden by David Ruckser Archived 2016-03-06 at the Wayback Machine
- Queen Christina of Sweden Windweaver
- The American Cyclopædia. 1879. .