Triumvirate
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A triumvirate (
Pre-modern triumvirates
Biblical
In the Bible triumvirates occurred at some notable events in both the Old Testament and New Testament. In the Book of Exodus Moses, his brother Aaron and, according to some views their nephew or brother-in-law, Hur acted this way during the Battle of Rephidim against the Amalekites.[1][2] Later, when Moses was away on the Mount Sinai Aaron and Hur were left in charge of all the Israelites.[3]
In the
-
James, son of Zebedee (sitting L-R) at the Transfiguration of Jesus.
Ancient China
During the
Despite the
The Three Excellencies existed in Western Han (202 BCE – 9 CE) as the Chancellor, Imperial Secretary, and Grand Commandant, but the Chancellor was viewed as senior to the Imperial Secretary while the post of Grand Commandant was vacant for most of the dynasty. After
Hinduism
In Hinduism, the gods Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva form the triumvirate Trimurti, where they each represent the balancing forces of creation, preservation, and destruction, respectively.[11] Their female counterparts and consorts, the goddesses Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati, make up the parallel Tridevi.
Pagaruyuang
Triumvirates during the
Ancient Rome
During the
The term triumvirate is most commonly used by historians of ancient Rome to refer to two political alliances during the crisis of the Roman Republic:
- The informal Pompey the Great, and Marcus Licinius Crassus, formed in 60 BCE or 59 BCE as an alliance among three prominent politicians and lasting until the death of Crassus in the Battle of Carrhaein 53 BCE, who were not triumviri in the usual Roman sense
- The Second Triumvirate (the Tresviri reipublicae constituendae) of Octavianus (later Caesar Augustus), Mark Antony, and Lepidus, formed in 43 BCE as an official, legally established institution, formally recognized by the Roman Senate in the Lex Titia and lasted de facto until the fall of Lepidus in 36 BCE, de jure until 32 BCE.
Tamil
Tamil Triumvirate refers to the triumvirate of Chola, Chera, and Pandya who dominated the politics of the ancient Tamil country. Sivaperuman, Murugan and Agatiyar are considered triumvirate of Tamil Language and Sangam Literature.
Rum Seljuks
In 1246,
Modern triumvirates
The title was revived a few times for (short-lived) three-headed political 'magistratures' in post-feudal times.
Ottoman Empire
The
Modern Bosnia and Herzegovina
Post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina is ruled by a three-member Presidency.
Early modern and modern France
While French
At the end of the 1700s, when the French revolutionaries turned to several Roman magistrature names for their newly created institutions, the three-headed collective head of state was named the Consulat (1799–1804), a term in use for two-headed magistratures since Antiquity; furthermore it included an office of First Consul who was not an equal, but the de facto solo head of state and government – a position Napoleon Bonaparte chose to convert openly into the First French Empire in 1804.
Prior to Napoleon and during
Pre-Independent India
In the early days of the national struggle and before Gandhi, the Indian National Congress was known to be under Lal-Bal-Pal i.e. Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal and Bal Gangadhar Tilak, often dubbed Lokmanya Tilak.
Czechoslovakia
The
Indonesia
According to the Article 8 paragraph (3) from the Constitution of Indonesia, there are three head of government institutions that can act as a "temporary" triumvirate only if there are vacancies in the position of president and vice president at the same time (e.g. both president and vice president were assassinated, sick, not doing their duties, died, or resigned). They are Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of Home Affairs, and Minister of Defense. Those three ministers can act for president and vice president together for maximum 30 days.
After that, during the term of the triumvirate, the People's Consultative Assembly must elect a new president and vice president from the two pairs of candidates nominated by the political party or coalition of political parties whose candidates were the winner and the runner-up in the previous presidential election. The newly elected president and vice president will continue the remaining term of former president and vice president that were elected from previous general election, not five years.
Modern Israel
- 2008–2009: Former Prime Minister Ehud Olmert, Defense Minister Ehud Barak, and Minister of Foreign Affairs Tzipi Livni were sometimes referred to as a triumvirate.[17][18][19]
- 2012: The leadership of Shas, the ultra-orthodox Sepharadi political party of Israel, was given by its spiritual leader, Rabbi Ovadia Yosef and the Council of Torah Sages, to a triumvirate formed by the convicted Aryeh Deri, who decided to return to politics after a thirteen-year hiatus, the former party leader Eli Yishai and Ariel Atias.
Benin
- 13 April 1970 until 26 October 1972: After the contentious 1970 presidential elections, the country of Benin (then known as the Republic of Dahomey) adopted a Presidential Council which included the three main political figures in the country: Hubert Maga, Justin Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin, and Sourou-Migan Apithy. In addition, the formal office of President would rotate between the three of them beginning with Hubert Maga. After one successful change of leadership, military leader Mathieu Kérékou staged a coup and overthrew the Presidential Council becoming the leader of the country until 1991.[20]
Soviet Union
- See also List of Troikas in the Soviet Union
In the context of the Soviet Union, the term troika (Russian: for "group of three") is used for "triumvirate".[21]
- May 1922 – April 1925: When Vladimir Lenin suffered his first stroke in May 1922, a Troika was established to govern the country in his place, although Lenin briefly returned to the leadership from 2 October 1922 until a severe stroke on 9 March 1923 ended his political career. The Troika consisted of Joseph Stalin, Lev Kamenev, and Grigory Zinoviev. The Troika broke up in April 1925, when Kamenev and Zinoviev found themselves in a minority over their belief that socialism could only be achieved internationally. Zinoviev and Kamenev joined forces with Leon Trotsky's Left Opposition in early 1926.[22] Later, Kamenev, Zinoviev and Trotsky would all be murdered on Stalin's orders.
- 13 March – 26 June 1953: After the death of Lavrenty Beria, and Vyacheslav Molotov.
- 14 October 1964 – 16 June 1977: After the removal of Nikita Khrushchev in October 1964, the Soviet Union went through a period of collective leadership. Power was initially shared between General Secretary (until 1966 First Secretary) Leonid Brezhnev, Premier Alexei Kosygin, and Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (nominal de jure head of state) Anastas Mikoyan. Mikoyan was replaced by Nikolai Podgorny in 1965.
Modern Italy
In the
- 29 March – 1 July 1849: Carlo Armellini (1777–1863), Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–1872), and Conte Aurelio Saffi (1819–1890)
- 1–4 July 1849: Aurelio Saffi (again), Alessandro Calandrelli (1805–1888), and Livio Mariani (1793–1855)
Almost immediately following the Roman Republic, the Red Triumvirate governed the restored Papal States from 1849 to 1850:[23][24]
- 1 August 1849 – 12 April 1850: Cardinals Gabriele della Genga Sermattei (1801–1861), Lodovico Altieri (1805–1867), and Luigi Vannicelli Casoni (1801–1877)
Modern Greece
- After the downfall of the first King of Greece, the Bavarian Otto, on 23 October 1862, and Dimitrios Voulgaris' unsuccessful term (23 October 1862 – 30 January 1863) as president of the Provisional Government, a Triumvirate (30 January – 30 October 1863) was established consisting of the same Dimitrios Voulgaris, the renowned Admiral Konstantinos Kanaris and Benizelos Roufos, which acted as a regency until the arrival of the new monarch, the first "King of the Hellenes", George I.
- A triumvirate was established to head the Theriso revolt of 1905 in autonomous Crete, consisting of Eleftherios Venizelos (later Prime Minister of Greece) in charge of organisational matters, Konstantinos Foumis in charge of finances and Konstantinos Manos, the former mayor of Chania, in charge of military affairs.
- A triumvirate was set up during the Pavlos Koundouriotis. This "Triumvirate of National Defence" functioned as a collective head of government, although effective control was in Venizelos' hands. With the abdication of King Constantine I in June 1917 and the reunification of the country under Venizelos, the triumvirate was dissolved. The Triandriamunicipality in Thessaloniki is named after this triumvirate.
- A triumvirate was set up on 13 September 1922 to lead the military revolt against the royalist government in Athens in the aftermath of the Asia Minor Disaster. It was composed of Colonels Nikolaos Plastiras and Stylianos Gonatas, and Commander Dimitrios Fokas. The triumvirate assumed the government of Greece on 15 September, and would control the country until it laid down its powers on 2 January 1924. Plastiras however quickly became the dominant figure among the triumvirate, and was eventually labelled as the "Chief of the Revolution".
- A de facto triumvirate existed during the early years of the Greek military junta of 1967–1974, when the junta's three main leaders were Colonel Georgios Papadopoulos, Brigadier Stylianos Pattakos and Colonel Nikolaos Makarezos. With the increasing predominance of Papadopoulos from 1970 on, this triumvirate ceased to function.
- The Axis Occupation of Greece, had a triadic leadership structure, consisting of the kapetánios ("captain", the unit's leader), the stratiotikós (the military specialist, usually a former Army officer) and the politikós (the political representative of the National Liberation Front).
Argentina
- First Triumvirate (23 September 1811 – 8 October 1812):
- Feliciano Chiclana.
- Manuel de Sarratea.
- Juan José Paso, replaced by Juan Martín de Pueyrredón on 23 March 1812.
- Second Triumvirate (8 October 1812 – 31 January 1814):
- Nicolás Rodríguez Peña.
- Antonio Álvarez Jonte, replaced by Gervasio Antonio de Posadas on 19 August 1813.
- Juan José Paso, replaced by José Julián Pérez on 20 February 1813, and replaced by Juan Larrea on 5 November 1813.
- Third Triumvirate (18–20 April 1815):
- Military Junta (28–29 June 1966):
- Junta of Commanders of the Armed Forces (8–18 June 1970):
- Pedro Alberto José Gnavi, President.
- Carlos Alberto Rey.
- Alejandro Lanusse.
- Junta of Commanders of the Armed Forces (23–26 March 1971):
- Alejandro Lanusse, President.
- Pedro Alberto José Gnavi.
- Carlos Alberto Rey.
- Military Junta (24–29 March 1976):
Brazil
- The Empire of Brazil had two triumvirates during a period known as the Regency period:
- Provisional Triumviral Regency (7 April – 3 May 1831)
- Permanent Triumviral Regency (17 June 1831 – 12 October 1835)
- Francisco de Lima e Silva
- The Marquis of Monte Alegre (from 18 June)
- João Bráulio Muniz (from 18 June)
- Republican Brazil had two military juntas:
- The Military Junta of 1930, after the fall of the First Brazilian Republic (24 October – 3 November 1930)
- General Augusto Tasso Fragoso (Army)
- Admiral Isaías de Noronha (Navy)
- General João de Deus Mena Barreto (Army)
- The Military Junta of 1969, during the military dictatorship (31 August – 30 October 1969)
- General Aurélio de Lira Tavares (Army)
- General Márcio Melo (Air Force)
- Admiral Augusto Rademaker (Navy)
- The Military Junta of 1930, after the fall of the First Brazilian Republic (24 October – 3 November 1930)
The Americas
- Venezuela: by decree of the Caracas Junta and ratified in the Federal Constitution of 1811 the executive power was vested in "three individuals" (1810–12)
- The Eastern State of Uruguay had one triumvirate in 1853.
- Foolish Fatherland
- Interim Triumvirate, 5 October – 23 November 1814
- José María del Castillo y Rada
- José Joaquín Camacho
- José Fernández Madrid
- Triumvirate of the United Provinces of New Granada, 23 November 1814 – October 1815
- Custodio García Rovira
- Antonio Villavicencio, replaced Rovira during his second term as he could not preside over
- José Manuel Restrepo, was never sworn in.
- José Miguel Pey de Andrade, replaced Restrepo as he declined. 28 July 1815
- Manuel Rodríguez Torices
- Custodio García Rovira
- Interim Triumvirate, 5 October – 23 November 1814
- The Dominican Republic had two triumvirates, which were essentially three-member juntas:
- 29 May – 22 August 1866 – 1st Triumvirate (in rebellion against Buenaventura Báez from 1 May 1866):
- Pedro Antonio Pimentel (1830–1874; formerly one of three "Generals-in-Chief" 23–24 January 1865)
- Gregorio Luperón (1839–1897) PA
- Federico de Jesús García
- 26 September 1963 – 25 April 1965 – 2nd Triumvirate:
- Emilio de los Santos (b. 1903 – 22 December 1963) (chairman from 29 December 1963, succeeded by Donald Reid Cabral, b. 1923, UCN, new chairman)
- Manuel Enrique Tavares Espaillat (1924–1984)
- Ramón Tapia Espinal (1926–2002)
- 29 May – 22 August 1866 – 1st Triumvirate (in rebellion against Buenaventura Báez from 1 May 1866):
- Speaker of the New York State Assembly, and the Majority Leader of the New York State Senate[25]
- Nicaragua (1972–74) Liberal-Conservative Junta of Roberto Martínez, Alfonso Lovo Cordero (liberals) and Fernando Agüero (conservative). Agüero resigned in 1973 and Edmundo Paguada was successor.
- Mexico (1823–24) Guadalupe Victoria, Nicolás Bravo and Celestino Negrete.
- Paraguay had four brief triumvirates since the Paraguay campaign, with only the penultimate lasting more than a year.
- Shared Governorate, 16 May – 17 June 1811
- Liberal Triumvirate, 21 January – 9 February 1841
- Postwar Triumvirate, 15 August 1869 – 31 August 1870
- 1912 Triumvirate, 14 January 1912 – 17 January 1912
Other triumvirates
The word has been used as a term of convenience, though not an official title, for other groups of three in a similar position:
- Great Triumvirate (19th-century American politics – Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun)
- John Brown Gordon)
- After the Lisbon Treatycame into force from 1 December 2009:
- Great Triumvirate (Early 20th-century golf – Harry Vardon, James Braid, and J.H. Taylor)
- Eric Schmidt, former CEO of Google has referred to himself, along with founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin as part of a triumvirate, stating, "This triumvirate has made an informal deal to stick together for at least 20 years".[26][needs update]
- Weimar Triangle, regional alliance of France, Germany, and Poland created in 1991
See also
- Constitution of the Roman Republic
- Council of Three (disambiguation)
- Decemvirate
- Diarchy
- Duumviri
- European troika
- Monarchy
- Septemvir
- Tetrarchy
Notes
- ^ Exodus 17:10
- ISBN 978-1579580407. Retrieved 18 August 2015.
- ^ Exodus 24:14
- ^ Mark 5:37
- ^ Matthew 17:1
- ^ Matthew 26:37
- ^ Galatians 2:9
- ^ "Galatians 2:9 And recognizing the grace that I had been given, James, Cephas, and John – those reputed to be pillars – gave me and Barnabas the right hand of fellowship, so that we should go to the Gentiles and they to the Jews". biblehub.com.
- ^ Loewe (1986), 178.
- ^ Beck (1986), 319.
- ^ For quotation defining the trimurti see Matchett, Freda. "The Purāṇas", in: Flood (2003), p. 139.
- ^ "BAB III. Rajo Tigo Selo". 11 March 2008.
- TDV Encyclopedia of Islam (44+2 vols.) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. 1988–2016.
- ISBN 978-1000752670.
- ISBN 978-0-19-871595-5.
- ISBN 1-85828-904-1.
- ^ Ladies and gentlemen, your next government, By Amir Oren, Published: 13 January 2009, Haaretz Daily Newspaper. Archived from the original 25 January 2009
- ^ Diplomacy: Endgame politics, By Herb Keinon, 8 January 2009, Jerusalem Post
- ^ Israel launches PR blitz ahead of Gaza operation, Roni Sofer, Published: 21 December 2008, Ynetnews
- ^ Decalo, Samuel (1973). "Regionalism, Politics, and the Military in Dahomey". The Journal of Developing Areas. 7 (3): 449–478.
- ^ "Definition of TROIKA". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
- ISBN 978-1576070840.
- ISBN 978-0-791-40185-9.
- ^ Glueckert, Leopold G. (1989). Between Two Amnesties: Former Political Prisoners and Exiles in the Roman Revolution of 1848 (PhD). Loyola University Chicago. p. 128.
- ^ Lachman, Seymour & Polner, Robert (2006). Three Men in a Room: The Inside Story of Power and Betrayal in an American Statehouse. New York : New Press.
- ^ Tim Weber (4 September 2008), A decade on: Google's internet economy, BBC News, retrieved 10 February 2013
References
- Beck, Mansvelt. (1986). "The Fall of Han," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24327-0.
- Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-4051-3251-5.
- Loewe, Michael. (1986). "The Former Han Dynasty," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 103–222. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24327-0.
- Etymology on line
- World Statesmen here Greece - see under each present country
External links
- Livius.org: Triumvir Archived 2013-01-20 at the Wayback Machine