World Trade Center (1973–2001)
World Trade Center | |||||||||||||||||||
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Record height | |||||||||||||||||||
Tallest in the world from 1970 to 1973[I] | |||||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Empire State Building | ||||||||||||||||||
Surpassed by | Willis Tower | ||||||||||||||||||
General information | |||||||||||||||||||
Status | Destroyed | ||||||||||||||||||
Architectural style |
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Location | Lower Manhattan, New York, New York, U.S. | ||||||||||||||||||
Coordinates | 40°42′42″N 74°00′45″W / 40.71167°N 74.01250°W | ||||||||||||||||||
Groundbreaking | August 5, 1966 January 18, 1967 (South Tower) | ||||||||||||||||||
Construction started |
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Topped-out |
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Completed |
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Opening |
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Inaugurated | April 4, 1973[2] | ||||||||||||||||||
Destroyed | September 11, 2001 | ||||||||||||||||||
Owner | Port Authority of New York and New Jersey | ||||||||||||||||||
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Design and construction | |||||||||||||||||||
Architect(s) |
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References | |||||||||||||||||||
I. ^ "World Trade Center". Emporis. Archived from the original on September 30, 2015. [4][5] |
The original World Trade Center (WTC) was a large complex of seven buildings in the
The core complex was built between 1966 and 1975, at a cost of ~$400 million (equivalent to ~$3.80 billion in 2023[7]).[8] The idea was suggested by David Rockefeller to help stimulate urban renewal in Lower Manhattan, and his brother Nelson, then New York's 49th governor, signed the legislation to build it.[9][10] The buildings at the complex were designed by Minoru Yamasaki.[11] In 1998, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey decided to privatize it by leasing the buildings to a private company to manage. It awarded the lease to Silverstein Properties in July 2001.[12] During its existence, the World Trade Center symbolized globalization and the economic prosperity of the U.S.[13] Although its design was initially criticized by New Yorkers and professional critics[14]—"they put up the boxes instead of the buildings"—the Twin Towers became an icon of New York City.[15] It had a major role in popular culture, and according to one estimate was depicted in 472 films. The Twin Towers were also used in Philippe Petit's tightrope-walking performance on August 7, 1974.[16] Following the September 11 attacks, mentions of the complex in various media were altered or deleted, and several dozen "memorial films" were created.[17]
The World Trade Center experienced several major crime and terrorist incidents, including a fire on February 13, 1975;
The
Before the World Trade Center
Site
The western portion of the World Trade Center site was originally under the Hudson River. The shoreline was in the vicinity of Greenwich Street, which is closer to the site's eastern border. It was on this shoreline, close to the intersection of Greenwich and the former Dey Street, that Dutch explorer Adriaen Block's ship, Tyger, burned to the waterline in November 1613, stranding him and his crew and forcing them to overwinter on the island. They built the first European settlement in Manhattan. The remains of the ship were buried under landfill when the shoreline was extended beginning in 1797 and was discovered during excavation work in 1916. The remains of a second eighteenth-century ship were discovered in 2010 during excavation work at the site. The ship, believed to be a Hudson River sloop, was found just south of where the Twin Towers stood, about 20 feet (6.1 m) below the surface.[26]
Later, the area became New York City's Radio Row, which existed from 1921 to 1966. The neighborhood was a warehouse district in what is now Tribeca and the Financial District. Harry Schneck opened City Radio on Cortlandt Street in 1921, and eventually, the area held several blocks of electronics stores, with Cortlandt Street as its central axis. The used radios, war surplus electronics (e.g., AN/ARC-5 radios), junk, and parts were often piled so high they would spill out onto the street, attracting collectors and scroungers. According to a business writer, it also was the origin of the electronic component distribution business.[27]
Establishment of the World Trade Center
The idea of establishing a World Trade Center in New York City was first proposed in 1943. The New York State Legislature passed a bill authorizing New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey to begin developing plans for the project,[28] but the plans were put on hold in 1949.[29] During the late 1940s and 1950s, economic growth in New York City was concentrated in Midtown Manhattan. To help stimulate urban renewal in Lower Manhattan, David Rockefeller suggested that the Port Authority build a World Trade Center there.[30]
Plans for the use of
At the time, ridership on New Jersey's H&M Railroad had declined substantially—from a high of 113 million riders in 1927, to 26 million in 1958—after new automobile tunnels and bridges had opened across the Hudson River.[35] In a December 1961 meeting between Port Authority director Austin J. Tobin and newly elected New Jersey Governor Richard J. Hughes, the Port Authority offered to take over the H&M Railroad. They also decided to move the World Trade Center project to the Hudson Terminal building site on the west side of Lower Manhattan, a more convenient location for New Jersey commuters arriving via PATH.[34] With the new location and the Port Authority's acquisition of the H&M Railroad, New Jersey agreed to support the World Trade Center project.[36] As part of the deal, the Port Authority renamed the H&M "Port Authority Trans-Hudson", or PATH for short.[37]
To compensate Radio Row business owners for their displacement, the Port Authority gave each business $3,000 without regard to how long the business had been there or how prosperous it was.[38] The Port Authority began purchasing properties in the area for the World Trade Center by March 1965,[39] and demolition of Radio Row began in March 1966.[40] It was completely demolished by the end of the year.[41]
Approval was also needed from New York City Mayor John Lindsay and the New York City Council. Disagreements with the city centered on tax issues. On August 3, 1966, an agreement was reached whereby the Port Authority would make annual payments to the City in lieu of taxes for the portion of the World Trade Center leased to private tenants.[42] In subsequent years, the payments would rise as the real estate tax rate increased.[43]
Development
Design
On September 20, 1962, the Port Authority announced the selection of Minoru Yamasaki as lead architect and Emery Roth & Sons as associate architects.[44] Yamasaki devised the plan to incorporate twin towers. His original plan called for the towers to be 80 stories tall,[45] but to meet the Port Authority's requirement for 10,000,000 square feet (930,000 m2) of office space, the buildings would each have to be 110 stories tall.[46]
Yamasaki's design for the World Trade Center, unveiled to the public on January 18, 1964, called for a square plan approximately 208 feet (63 m) in dimension on each side.
A major limiting factor in building height is the issue of elevators; the taller the building, the more elevators are needed to service it, requiring more space-consuming elevator banks.[53] Yamasaki and the engineers decided to use a new system with two "sky lobbies"—floors where people could switch from a large-capacity express elevator to a local elevator that goes to each floor in a section. This system, inspired by the local-express train operation used in New York City's subway system,[54] allowed the design to stack local elevators within the same elevator shaft. Located on the 44th and 78th floors of each tower, the sky lobbies enabled the elevators to be used efficiently. This increased the amount of usable space on each floor from 62 to 75 percent by reducing the number of elevator shafts.[55] Altogether, the World Trade Center had 95 express and local elevators.[56]
The structural engineering firm Worthington, Skilling, Helle & Jackson worked to implement Yamasaki's design, developing the
The framed-tube design, introduced in the 1960s by
The core of the towers housed the elevator and utility shafts, restrooms, three stairwells, and other support spaces. The core of each tower was a rectangular area 87 by 135 feet (27 by 41 m) and contained 47 steel columns running from the bedrock to the top of the tower. The large, column-free space between the perimeter and core was bridged by prefabricated floor trusses. The floors supported their own weight as well as
Hat trusses (or "outrigger trusses") located from the 107th floor to the top of the buildings were designed to support a tall communication antenna on top of each building.[62] Only 1 WTC (North Tower) actually had a spire antenna fitted, which was added in May 1979.[65][66][67] The truss system consisted of six trusses along the long axis of the core and four along the short axis. This truss system allowed some load redistribution between the perimeter and core columns and supported the transmission tower.[62]
The framed-tube design, using steel core and perimeter columns protected with sprayed-on fire-resistant material, created a relatively lightweight structure that would sway more in response to the wind compared to traditional structures, such as the
Gallery
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World Trade Center lobby interior with large cathedral-like arched windows
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Exterior entrance trident columns with Ideogram sculpture
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Exterior view from plaza
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Exterior view withCloud Fortresssculpture in front
Construction
In March 1965, the Port Authority began acquiring property at the World Trade Center site.[39] Demolition work began on March 21, 1966, to clear thirteen square blocks of low rise buildings in Radio Row for its construction.[40] Groundbreaking for the construction of the World Trade Center took place on August 5, 1966.[72]
The site of the World Trade Center was located on filled land with the
In January 1967, the Port Authority awarded $74 million in contracts to various steel suppliers.
In addition to the twin towers, the plan for the World Trade Center complex included four other low-rise buildings, which were built in the early 1970s. The 47-story 7 World Trade Center building was added in the 1980s, to the north of the main complex. Altogether, the main World Trade Center complex occupied a 16-acre (65,000 m2) superblock.[85][86]
Complex
The World Trade Center complex housed more than 430 companies that were engaged in various commercial activities.
North and South Towers
One World Trade Center and Two World Trade Center, commonly referred to as the Twin Towers, were designed by architect Minoru Yamasaki as framed tube structures, which provided tenants with open floor plans, uninterrupted by columns or walls.[93][94] They were the main buildings of the World Trade Center.[79] Construction of the North Tower at One World Trade Center began in 1966 with the South Tower at Two World Trade Center.[95] When completed in 1972, 1 World Trade Center became the tallest building in the world for two years, surpassing the Empire State Building after its 40-year reign. The North Tower stood 1,368 feet (417 m) tall[95] and featured a 362 foot (110 m) telecommunications antenna or mast that was built on the roof in 1979 (upgraded in 1999 to accommodate DTV broadcasts). With this addition, the highest point of the North Tower reached 1,730 feet (530 m).[96] Chicago's Willis Tower, then called Sears Tower which was finished in May 1973, reached 1,450 feet (440 m) at the rooftop.[97]
When completed in 1973, the South Tower became the second tallest building in the world at 1,362 feet (415 m). Its rooftop observation deck was 1,362 ft (415 m) high and its indoor observation deck was 1,310 ft (400 m) high.[96] Each tower stood over 1,350 feet (410 m) high, and occupied about 1 acre (4,000 m2) of the total 16 acres (65,000 m2) of the site's land. During a press conference in 1973, Yamasaki was asked, "Why two 110-story buildings? Why not one 220-story building?" His tongue-in-cheek response was: "I didn't want to lose the human scale."[98] Architectural critic Ada Louise Huxtable criticized the design of the twin towers when they were first announced, saying: "Here we have the world's daintiest architecture for the world's biggest buildings."[99][100]
The twin towers had more floors (at 110) than any other building before the completion of the Sears Tower in 1973.[96] Their floor counts were not matched until the construction of the Sears Tower, and they were not surpassed until the construction of the Burj Khalifa, which opened in 2010.[101][102] Each tower had a total mass of around 500,000 tons.[103]
Austin J. Tobin Plaza
The original World Trade Center had a five-acre (two-hectare) plaza around which all of the buildings in the complex, including the twin towers, were centered. World Trade Center officials had wanted the plaza to be a "contemplative space" or a
For many years, the Plaza was often beset by brisk winds at ground level owing to the Venturi effect between the two towers.[112] Some gusts were so strong that pedestrians' travel had to be aided by ropes.[113] In 1997 Tony May opened an Italian restaurant in the plaza next to 4 World Trade Center called "Gemelli".[114] The following year, he opened another restaurant in an adjacent place called "Pasta Break".[115] On June 9, 1999, the outdoor plaza reopened after undergoing $12 million in renovations.[116][117] This involved replacing marble pavers with over 40,000 gray and pink granite stones, as well as adding benches, planters, food kiosks, and outdoor dining areas.[104]
Top of the World observation deck
Although most of the space in the World Trade Center complex was off-limits to the public, the South Tower featured a public glass-enclosed observation deck on the 107th floor called Top of the World and an open-air deck with the height of 110 stories.[118][119][120] The observation deck was operative since December 1975 and the opening times were from 9:30 a.m. to 11:30 p.m. (June – August) and from 9:30 a.m. – 9:30 p.m. (September – May).[121][122] After paying an entrance fee in the second floor, visitors were required to pass through security checks added after the 1993 World Trade Center bombing.[123] They were then sent to the 107th-floor indoor observatory at a height of 1,310 feet (400 m) by a dedicated express elevator.[119] The exterior columns were narrowed to allow 28 inches of window width between them. In 1995, the Port Authority leased operation of the observatory to Ogden Entertainment, which decided to renovate it.[124] On April 30, 1997, the Top of the World tour reopened after renovations were finished.[125] Attractions added to the observation deck included 24 video monitors, which provided descriptions of 44 points of interest in six languages; a theater showing a film of a simulated helicopter tour around the city called "Manhattan Magic";[126][119][127] a model of Manhattan with 750 buildings; a Kodak photo booth and two gift shops.[126] The 107th-floor also featured a subway-themed food court that featured Sbarro Street Station and Nathan's Famous Hot Dogs with a dining area that simulated Central Park.[96][128]
Weather permitting, visitors could ride two short escalators up from the 107th-floor viewing area to an outdoor platform at a height of 1,377 ft (420 m).[129][119][130] On a clear day, visitors could see up to 50 miles (80 km).[96] An anti-suicide fence was placed on the roof itself, with the viewing platform set back and elevated above it, requiring only an ordinary railing. This left the view unobstructed, unlike the observation deck of the Empire State Building.[128]
Windows on the World Restaurant
Windows on the World, the restaurant on the North Tower's 106th and 107th floors,
Windows on the World was forced to close following the 1993 World Trade Center bombing as the explosion damaged receiving areas, storage and parking spots used by the restaurant complex.[132] On May 12, 1994, the Joseph Baum & Michael Whiteman Company won the contract to run the restaurants after Windows's former operator, Inhilco, gave up its lease.[135] After its reopening on June 26, 1996, the Greatest Bar on Earth and Cellar in the Sky (reopened after Labor Day)[136] replaced the original restaurant offshoots.[133] In 1999, Cellar in the Sky was changed into an American steakhouse and renamed as Wild Blue.[137] In 2000 (its last full year of operation), Windows on the World reported revenues of $37 million, making it the highest-grossing restaurant in the United States.[138] The Skydive Restaurant, which was a 180-seat cafeteria on the 44th floor of 1 WTC conceived for office workers, was also operated by Windows on the World.[133][139]
In its last iteration, Windows on the World received mixed reviews.
Other buildings
Five smaller buildings stood on the 16-acre (65,000 m2) block.
One of the world's largest gold depositories was located underneath the World Trade Center, owned by a group of commercial banks. The 1993 bombing detonated close to the vault.[152] Seven weeks after the September 11 attacks, $230 million in precious metals was removed from basement vaults of 4 WTC. This included 3,800 100-Troy-ounce 24 carat gold bars and 30,000 1,000-ounce silver bars.[153]
Major events
February 13, 1975 fire
On February 13, 1975, a
February 26, 1993 bombing
The first terrorist attack on the World Trade Center occurred on February 26, 1993, at 12:17 p.m. A
Following the bombing, floors that were blown out needed to be repaired to restore the structural support they provided to columns.
January 14, 1998 robbery
In January 1998, an DeCavalcante crime family member Ralph Guarino gained maintenance access to the World Trade Center. He arranged a three-man crew for a heist that netted over $2 million from a Brinks delivery to the North Tower's 11th floor.[20]
Other events
On the morning of August 7, 1974, Philippe Petit performed a high-wire walk between the North and South Towers of the World Trade Center. For his unauthorized feat 1,312 feet (400 m) above the ground, he rigged a 440-pound (200 kg) cable and used a custom-made 30-foot-long (9.1 m), 55-pound (25 kg) balancing pole. He performed for 45 minutes, making eight passes along the wire.[168] Though Petit was charged with criminal trespass and disorderly conduct, he was later freed in exchange for performing for children in Central Park.[169]
On February 20, 1981, an Aerolíneas Argentinas airliner was guided away by air traffic controllers after radar signals indicated it was on a collision course with the North Tower (1 WTC). The aircraft, which departed from José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport in Guayaquil, Ecuador, and was scheduled to land at nearby JFK Airport, was flying at a much lower altitude than regulations recommended.[170]
The 1995 PCA world chess championship was played on the 107th floor of the South Tower.[171]
On February 8, 2000, a worker was crushed to death and another was injured by an industrial cooling unit.[172][173]
Proposed lease
Slow leasing was a hallmark of the old World Trade Center complex. The Twin Towers suffered high vacancy rates for decades. The complex achieved 95% occupancy only in mid-2001.[174]
Following the Port Authority's approved plans to privatize the World Trade Center in the late 1990s,
On February 15, 2001, the Port Authority announced that Vornado Realty Trust had won the World Trade Center lease, paying $3.25 billion for the 99-year lease.[178] Vornado outbid Silverstein by $600 million though Silverstein upped his offer to $3.22 billion. However, Vornado insisted on last minute changes to the deal, including a shorter 39-year lease, which the Port Authority considered nonnegotiable.[179] Vornado later withdrew and Silverstein's bid for the lease to the World Trade Center was accepted on April 26, 2001,[180] and closed on July 24, 2001.[181]
Destruction
On September 11, 2001, Islamist terrorists hijacked two flights and crashed them into the Twin Towers. One group led by Mohamed Atta crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the northern facade of the North Tower[182] at 8:46:40 a.m.; the aircraft struck between the 93rd and 99th floors. Seventeen minutes later, at 9:03:11 a.m.,[a] a second group led by Marwan al-Shehhi crashed the similarly hijacked United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern facade of the South Tower, striking it between the 77th and 85th floors.[187]
The terrorist organization al-Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden, carried out the attacks in retaliation for certain aspects of American foreign policy, particularly U.S. support of Israel and the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia. The damage caused to the North Tower by Flight 11 destroyed any means of escape from above the impact zone, trapping 1,344 people.[188] Flight 175 had a much more off-centered impact compared to Flight 11, and a single stairwell was left intact; however, only a few people managed to descend successfully before the tower collapsed. Although the South Tower was struck lower than the North Tower, thus affecting more floors, a smaller number (fewer than 700) were killed instantly or trapped.[189]
At 9:59 a.m., the South Tower collapsed after burning for approximately 56 minutes. The fire caused steel structural elements, already weakened from the plane's impact, to fail. The North Tower collapsed at 10:28 a.m., after burning for approximately 102 minutes.[190] At 5:20 p.m., 7 World Trade Center began to collapse with the crumbling of the east penthouse and collapsed completely at 5:21 p.m.[191] due to uncontrolled fires causing structural failure.[192]
The Marriott World Trade Center hotel was destroyed during the two towers' collapse. The three remaining buildings in the WTC plaza were extensively damaged by debris and later demolished.
In the immediate aftermath of the attacks, media reports suggested that tens of thousands might have been killed in the attacks, as over 50,000 people could have been inside the World Trade Center. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) estimated approximately 17,400 individuals were in the towers at the time of the attacks.[198] Ultimately, 2,753 death certificates (excluding those for hijackers) were filed relating to the 9/11 attacks.[23]
There were 2,192
New World Trade Center
Over the following years, plans were created for the reconstruction of the World Trade Center. The Lower Manhattan Development Corporation (LMDC), established in November 2001 to oversee the rebuilding process,[206] organized competitions to select a site plan and memorial design.[207] Memory Foundations, designed by Daniel Libeskind, was selected as the master plan;[208] however, substantial changes were made to the design.[209]
The first new building at the site was 7 WTC, which opened on May 23, 2006.[210] The memorial section of the National September 11 Memorial & Museum opened on September 11, 2011,[211] and the museum opened on May 21, 2014.[212] 1 WTC opened on November 3, 2014;[213] 4 WTC opened on November 13, 2013;[214] and 3 WTC opened on June 11, 2018.[215]
In November 2013, according to an agreement made with Silverstein Properties Inc., the new 2 WTC would not be built to its full height until sufficient space was leased to make the building financially viable.
Impact and legacy
Reception
Plans to build the World Trade Center were controversial. Its site was the location of Radio Row, home to hundreds of commercial and industrial tenants, property owners, small businesses, and approximately 100 residents, many of whom fiercely resisted forced relocation.[221] A group of affected small businesses sought an injunction challenging the Port Authority's power of an eminent domain.[222] The case made its way through the court system to the United States Supreme Court;, which refused to hear the case.[223]
Private real-estate developers and members of the
The World Trade Center's design aesthetics attracted criticism from the American Institute of Architects and other groups.[49][228] Lewis Mumford, author of The City in History and other works on urban planning, criticized the project, describing it and other new skyscrapers as "just glass-and-metal filing cabinets".[229] The Twin Towers were described as looking similar to "the boxes that the Empire State Building and the Chrysler Building came in".[230] Cultural critic Paul Fussell dismissed the Twin Towers for being "charmless, merely tall, and huge blunt buildings" in his 1991 book BAD Or, The Dumbing of America, adding that they were "brutal and despotic. Dull and witless, expressive only of dumb, raw power, they are widely touted as among the major achievements of the late twentieth century."[231] In his 1996 book Home from Nowhere, James Howard Kunstler wrote in regard to skyscrapers like the Twin Towers and the Empire State Building that "it was probably necessary for mankind's collective ego to prove that such buildings . . . could be built," but he added that they were not worth the "distortions of population density" that they produced, and that they also "overload neighborhoods and strain the infrastructure."[232]
In his book
On the surrounding community
The original World Trade Center created a superblock that cut through the area's street grid, isolating the complex from the rest of the community.[85][235][236] The Port Authority had demolished several streets to make way for the towers within the World Trade Center. The project involved combining the 12-block area bounded by Vesey, Church, Liberty, and West Streets on the north, east, south, and west, respectively.[235][237] 7 World Trade Center was built on the superblock's north side in the late 1980s over another block of Greenwich Street. The building acted as a physical barrier separating Tribeca to the north and the Financial District to the south.[238] The underground mall at the World Trade Center also drew shoppers away from surrounding streets.[239]
The project was seen as being monolithic and overambitious,[240] with the design having had no public input.[241] By contrast, the rebuilding plans had significant public input.[242] The public supported rebuilding a street grid through the World Trade Center site.[241][235][243] One of the rebuilding proposals included building an enclosed shopping street along the path of Cortlandt Street, one of the streets demolished to make room for the original World Trade Center.[239] The Port Authority ultimately decided to rebuild Cortlandt, Fulton, and Greenwich Streets, which were destroyed during the original World Trade Center's construction.[235]
As popular culture icon
Before its destruction, the World Trade Center was a New York City icon, and the Twin Towers were the centerpiece that represented the entire complex. They were used in film and TV projects as "establishing shots", standing for New York City as a whole.[17] In 1999, one writer noted: "Nearly every guidebook in New York City lists the Twin Towers among the city's top ten attractions."[15] Among the films that used the complex as a filming location was Sidney Lumet's The Wiz (1978), where the World Trade Center was used to represent Emerald City.[244]
There were several high-profile events that occurred at the World Trade Center. The most notable was held at the original WTC in 1974. French high wire acrobatic performer Philippe Petit walked between the two towers on a tightrope,[245] as shown in the documentary film Man on Wire (2008)[246] and depicted in the feature film The Walk (2015).[247] Petit walked between the towers eight times on a steel cable.[248][245] In 1975, Owen J. Quinn base-jumped from the roof of the North Tower and safely landed on the plaza between the buildings.[249] Quinn claimed that he was trying to publicize the plight of the poor.[249] On May 26, 1977, Brooklyn toymaker George Willig scaled the exterior of the South Tower.[250] He later said, "It looked unscalable; I thought I'd like to try it."[251][252] Six years later, high-rise firefighting and rescue advocate Dan Goodwin successfully climbed the outside of the North Tower to call attention to the inability to rescue people potentially trapped in the upper floors of skyscrapers.[253][254]
The complex was featured in numerous works of popular culture; in 2006, it was estimated that the World Trade Center had appeared in some form in 472 films.
After the September 11 attacks
After the September 11 attacks, some movies and TV shows deleted scenes or episodes set within the World Trade Center.[257][258][259][260] For example, The Simpsons episode "The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson", which first aired in 1997, was removed from syndication after the attacks because a scene showed the World Trade Center.[261] Songs that mentioned the World Trade Center were no longer aired on radio, and the release dates of some films, such as the 2001–2002 films Sidewalks of New York; People I Know; and Spider-Man were delayed so producers could remove film and poster scenes that included the World Trade Center.[257][256] The 2001 film Kissing Jessica Stein, which was shown at the Toronto International Film Festival the day before the attacks, had to be modified before its general public release so the filmmakers could delete scenes that depicted the World Trade Center.[257]
Other episodes and films mentioned the attacks directly or depicted the World Trade Center in alternate contexts.[258] The production of some family-oriented films was also sped up due to a large demand for the genre after the attacks. Demand for horror and action films decreased, but within a short time demand returned to normal.[260] By the attacks' first anniversary, over sixty "memorial films" had been created.[262] Filmmakers were criticized for removing scenes related to the World Trade Center. Rita Kempley of The Washington Post said "if we erase the towers from our art, we erase it [sic] from our memories".[263] Author Donald Langmead compared the phenomenon to the 1949 novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, where historic mentions of events are retroactively "rectified".[264] Other filmmakers such as Michael Bay, who directed the 1998 film Armageddon, opposed retroactively removing references to the World Trade Center based on post-9/11 attitudes.[257]
Logo
The World Trade Center used two different logos over its lifetime. The first logo, used from 1973 to 1993, consisted of two open rectangles with one upside down. Following the complex's reopening after the 1993 bombing, a new logo was unveiled, consisting of the towers encircled by a globe. This logo was found throughout the complex and was printed on commemorative mugs given out to tenants with the caption "Welcome back to the World Trade Center".[265]
Gallery
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World Trade Center exterior with Brooklyn Bridge in foreground, 1973
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World Trade Center exterior. Twilight view from harbor, 1976
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View to the South from 1 World Trade Center, 1992
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View of Manhattan skyline from Brooklyn, 1978
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The Twin Towers seen from Jersey City, 1978
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Brooklyn Bridge and East River, 1982
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View of the World Trade Center from the ground, 2000
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The Twin Towers seen from across the Hudson River, 2001
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World Trade Center from Battery Park City, May 2001.
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One of the towers of the World Trade Center seen from the ground.
See also
- Artwork damaged or destroyed in the September 11 attacks
- List of tallest freestanding steel structures
- List of tallest freestanding structures
Notes
References
- ^ "The city's newest hotel, the Vista International, officially opened..." UPI. July 1, 1981. Retrieved May 23, 2018.
- ^ Prial, Frank J. (April 5, 1973). "Governors Dedicate Trade Center Here; World Role Is Cited". The New York Times. p. 1. Retrieved October 13, 2021.
- ^ Nalder, Eric (February 27, 1993). "Twin Towers Engineered To Withstand Jet Collision". The Seattle Times. Retrieved September 6, 2021.
- ^ "World Trade Center". Emporis. Archived from the original on September 30, 2015.
- ^ a b "History of the Twin Towers". Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. June 1, 2014. Archived from the original on December 28, 2013. Retrieved August 17, 2015.
- ^ ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved January 24, 2023.
- ^ "Inflation Calculator".
- Gross Domestic Product deflatorfigures follow the MeasuringWorth series.
- ^ "David and Nelson Rockefeller | American Experience | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved October 3, 2021.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved October 3, 2021.
- ^ "Minoru Yamasaki designed World Trade Center as "beacon of democracy"". Dezeen. September 10, 2021. Retrieved October 3, 2021.
- ^ a b c Cuozzo, Steve (January 30, 2001). "Larry Lusts for Twin Towers; Silverstein has an Eye on WTC's; Untapped Retail Potential". New York Post.
- ^ "9/11 FAQs | National September 11 Memorial & Museum". www.911memorial.org. Retrieved October 14, 2021.
- ^ Stewart, Henry (September 8, 2016). "Why New Yorkers Couldn't Stand The Twin Towers". Gothamist. Retrieved August 3, 2023.
- ^ a b Gillespie (1999), p. 162.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved October 14, 2021.
- ^ a b c Langmead (2009), p. 353.
- ^ from the original on May 12, 2008. Retrieved August 19, 2020.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-55553-509-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8050-8659-1.
- ^ "What year was 9/11 – and what happened during terror attacks?". Nationalworld. September 8, 2021. Retrieved October 14, 2021.
- ^ "Why Did the World Trade Center Collapse? Science, Engineering, and Speculation". www.tms.org. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved October 14, 2021.
- ^ a b "Man's death from World Trade Center dust brings Ground Zero toll to 2,753". NY Daily News. Associated Press. June 18, 2011. Archived from the original on December 13, 2019. Retrieved September 1, 2011.
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External links
- World Trade Center – Silverstein Properties
- World Trade Center (1997) – World Trade Center (2001) – Port Authority of New York & New Jersey
- World Trade Center at Curlie
- Building the Twin Towers: A Tribute – slideshow by Life magazine
- New York: A Documentary film Archived August 10, 2017, at the Wayback Machine features the construction and destruction of the World Trade Center in the seventh and final episode of the series directed by Ric Burns.
- Historic video with scenes of World Trade Center under construction in 1970
- Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) No. NY-6369, "World Trade Center Site", 103 photos, 21 data pages, 8 photo caption pages