Yellow fever vaccine
Vaccine description | |
---|---|
Target | Yellow fever |
Vaccine type | Attenuated |
Clinical data | |
Trade names | YF-Vax, Stamaril |
Other names | 17D vaccine |
AHFS/Drugs.com | Monograph |
MedlinePlus | a607030 |
Pregnancy category |
|
Routes of administration | Subcutaneous injection |
ATC code | |
Legal status | |
Legal status | |
Identifiers | |
ChemSpider |
|
UNII | |
(what is this?) (verify) |
Yellow fever vaccine is a
The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends routine immunization in all countries where the disease is common.[4] This should typically occur between nine and twelve months of age.[4] Those traveling to areas where the disease occurs should also be immunized.[4] Additional doses after the first are generally not needed.[6]
The yellow fever vaccine is generally safe.
Yellow fever vaccine came into use in 1938.
Medical uses
Targeting
Medical experts recommend vaccinating people most at risk of contracting the virus, such as woodcutters working in tropical areas.[11] Insecticides, protective clothing, and screening of houses are helpful, but not always sufficient for mosquito control; medical experts recommend using personal insecticide spray in endemic areas.[12] In affected areas, mosquito control methods have proven effective in decreasing the number of cases.[13]
Travellers need to have the vaccine ten days prior to being in an endemic area in order to assure full immunity.[14]: 45
Duration and effectiveness
For most people, the vaccine remains effective permanently. People who are
On 17 May 2013, the World Health Organization (WHO) Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on immunization (SAGE) announced that a booster dose of yellow fever (YF) vaccine, ten years after a primary dose, is not necessary.[16] Since yellow fever vaccination began in the 1930s, only 12 known cases of yellow fever post-vaccination have been identified, after 600 million doses have been dispensed.[17] Evidence showed that among this small number of "vaccine failures", all cases developed the disease within five years of vaccination.[18] This demonstrates that immunity does not decrease with time.[19]
Schedule
The World Health Organization recommends the vaccine between the ages of 9 and 12 months in areas where the disease is common.[4] Anyone over the age of nine months who has not been previously immunized and either lives in or is traveling to an area where the disease occurs should also be immunized.[4]
Side effects
The yellow fever 17D vaccine is considered safe, with over 500 million doses given and very few documented cases of vaccine associated illness (62 confirmed cases and 35 deaths as of January 2019).[20] In no case of vaccine-related illness has there been evidence of the virus reverting to a virulent phenotype.[medical citation needed][21]
The majority of adverse reactions to the 17D vaccine result from allergic reaction to the eggs in which the vaccine is grown.
There is a small risk of more severe yellow fever-like disease associated with the vaccine. This reaction, known as yellow fever vaccine-associated acute viscerotropic disease (YEL-AVD),
The Canadian Medical Association published a 2001 CMAJ article entitled "Yellow fever vaccination: be sure the patient needs it".[31] The article begins by stating that of the seven people who developed system failure within two to five days of the vaccine in 1996–2001, six died "including 2 who were vaccinated even though they were planning to travel to countries where yellow fever has never been reported."[32] The article cites that "3 demonstrated histopatholic changes consistent with wild yellow fever virus."[33] The author recommends vaccination for only non-contraindicated travelers (see the articles list) and those travelers going where yellow fever activity is reported or in the endemic zone which can be found mapped at the CDC website cited below.[34] In addition, the 2010 online edition of the Center for Disease Control Traveler's Health Yellow Book states that between 1970 and 2002 only "nine cases of yellow fever were reported in unvaccinated travelers from the United States and Europe who traveled" to West Africa and South America, and 8 of the 9 died.[35] However, it goes on to cite "only 1 documented case of yellow fever in a vaccinated traveler.[36] This nonfatal case occurred in a traveler from Spain who visited several West African countries in 1988".[37]
History
African tropical cultures had adopted burial traditions in which the deceased were buried near their habitation, including those who died of Yellow fever.
The first modern attempts to develop a yellow fever vaccine followed the opening of the Panama Canal in 1912, which increased global exposure to the disease.[41] The Japanese bacteriologist Hideyo Noguchi led investigations for the Rockefeller Foundation in Ecuador that resulted in a vaccine based on his theory that the disease was caused by a leptospiral bacterium.[41] However, other investigators could not duplicate his results and the ineffective vaccine was eventually abandoned.[citation needed]
Another vaccine was developed from the "French strain" of the virus, obtained by Pasteur Institute scientists from a man in Dakar, Senegal, who survived his bout with the disease.[citation needed] This vaccine could be administered by scarification, like the smallpox vaccine, and was given in combination to produce immunity to both diseases, but it also had severe systemic and neurologic complications in a few cases.[42] Attempts to attenuate the virus used in the vaccine failed. Scientists at the Rockefeller Foundation developed another vaccine derived from the serum of an African named Asibi in 1927, the first isolation of the virus from a human.[43] It was safer but involved the use of large amounts of human serum, which limited widespread use.[44] Both vaccines were in use for several years, the Rockefeller vaccine in the Western hemisphere and England, and the Pasteur Institute vaccine in France and its African colonies.[45]
In 1937,
Theiler's vaccine was responsible for the largest outbreak of Hepatitis B in history: infecting 330,000 soldiers and giving 50,000 jaundice between 1941 and 1942.[48] At the time, chronic infectious hepatitis was not known, so when human serum was used in vaccine preparation, serum drawn from a chronic Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) carrier would contaminate the Yellow Fever Vaccine.[49] In 1941, researchers at Rocky Mountain Laboratories developed a safer alternative, an "aqueous-base" version of the 17D vaccine using distilled water combined with the virus grown in chicken eggs.[50] Since 1971, screening technology for HBV has been available and is routinely used in situations where HBV contamination is possible including vaccine preparation.[51]
Also in the 1930s, a French team developed the French neurotropic vaccine (FNV), which was extracted from mouse brain tissue.[52] Since this vaccine was associated with a higher incidence of encephalitis, FNV was not recommended after 1961. Vaccine 17D is still in use, and more than 400 million doses have been distributed. Little research has been done to develop new vaccines. Newer vaccines, based on vero cells, are in development (as of 2018).[53][54][55]
Manufacture and global supply
Increases in cases of yellow fever in endemic areas of Africa and South America in the 1980s were addressed by the WHO Yellow Fever Initiative launched in the mid-2000s.
Demand for yellow fever vaccine for preventive campaigns has increased from about five million doses per year to a projected 62 million per year by 2014.[61] UNICEF reported in 2013 that supplies were insufficient. Manufacturers are producing about 35 million of the 64 million doses needed per year.[62] Demand for the yellow fever vaccine has continued to increase due to the growing number of countries implementing yellow fever vaccination as part of their routine immunization programmes.[63]
As of February 2021, UNICEF reported awarded contract prices of ranging from US$0.97 to US$1.444 per dose under multi-year contracts with various suppliers.[73]
Travel requirements
Travellers who wish to enter certain countries or territories must be vaccinated against yellow fever 10 days before crossing the border, and be able to present a vaccination record/certificate at the border checks.[14]: 45 In most cases, this travel requirement depends on whether the country they are travelling from has been designated by the World Health Organization as being a 'country with risk of yellow fever transmission'.[74] In a few countries, it does not matter which country the traveller comes from: everyone who wants to enter these countries must be vaccinated against yellow fever.[75] There are exemptions for newborn children; in most cases, any child who is at least 9 months or 1 year old needs to be vaccinated.[76]
Yellow fever vaccination requirements for international travel (July 2019)[76] | |||
---|---|---|---|
Country or territory | Status | Vaccination required for travellers coming from | Traveller age |
Albania | No risk | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Algeria | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Angola | Risk country | All countries | 9 months or older |
Antigua and Barbuda | No risk | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Argentina | Risk provinces: Misiones, Corrientes |
No[note 3] | – |
Aruba | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Australia | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Bahamas | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Bahrain | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Bangladesh | No risk | Risk countries[note 5] | 1 year or older |
Barbados | No risk | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Belize | No risk | Risk countries[note 5] | 1 year or older |
Benin | Risk country | Risk countries[note 5] | 1 year or older |
Bolivia | Risk country | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Bonaire | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Botswana | No risk | Risk countries[note 5] | 1 year or older |
Brazil | Risk country | No[note 3] | – |
Brunei | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Burkina Faso | Risk country | Risk countries[note 5] | 9 months or older |
Burundi | Risk country | Risk countries[note 5] | 9 months or older |
Cabo Verde | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Cambodia | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Cameroon | Risk country | All countries | 9 months or older |
Central African Republic | Risk country | All countries | 9 months or older |
Chad | Risk country | All countries | 9 months or older |
China | No risk | Risk countries[note 5] | 9 months or older |
Christmas Island | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Colombia | Risk country | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Congo-Brazzaville | Risk country | All countries | 9 months or older |
Congo-Kinshasa | Risk country | All countries | 9 months or older |
Costa Rica | No risk | Risk countries | 9 months or older |
Côte d'Ivoire | Risk country | All countries | 9 months or older |
Cuba | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Curaçao | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Dominica | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Dominican Republic | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Ecuador | Risk country | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Egypt | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
El Salvador | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Equatorial Guinea | Risk country | Risk countries | 9 months or older |
Eritrea | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Eswatini | No risk | Risk countries[note 5] | 9 months or older |
Ethiopia | Risk country | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Fiji | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
French Guiana | Risk country | All countries | 1 year or older |
French Polynesia | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Gabon | Risk country | All countries | 1 year or older |
Gambia | Risk country | Risk countries | 9 months or older |
Ghana | Risk country | All countries | 9 months or older |
Grenada | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Guadeloupe | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Guatemala | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Guinea | Risk country | Risk countries | 9 months or older |
Guinea-Bissau | Risk country | All countries | 1 year or older |
Guyana | Risk country | Risk countries[note 5] | 1 year or older |
Haiti | No risk | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Honduras | No risk | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
India | No risk | Risk countries[note 5] | 9 months or older |
Indonesia | No risk | Risk countries | 9 months or older |
Iran | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Iraq | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Jamaica | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Jordan | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Kenya | Risk country | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Kyrgyzstan | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Laos | No risk | Risk countries | Unknown |
Lesotho | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 6 months or older |
Liberia | Risk country | Risk countries | 9 months or older |
Libya | No risk | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Madagascar | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Malawi | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Malaysia | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Maldives | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Mali | Risk country | All countries | 1 year or older |
Malta | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Martinique | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Mauritania | Risk country | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Mayotte | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Montserrat | No risk | Risk countries[note 5] | 1 year or older |
Mozambique | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Myanmar | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Namibia | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Nepal | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
New Caledonia | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Nicaragua | No risk | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Niger | Risk country | All countries | 1 year or older |
Nigeria | Risk country | All countries | 9 months or older |
Niue | No risk | Risk countries | 9 months or older |
North Korea | No risk | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Oman | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Pakistan | No risk | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Panama | Risk country | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Papua New Guinea | No risk | Risk countries[note 5] | 1 year or older |
Paraguay | Risk country | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Peru | Risk country | No[note 3] | – |
Philippines | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Pitcairn Islands | No risk | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Rwanda | No risk | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Saint Barthélemy | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Saint Helena | No risk | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Saint Kitts and Nevis | No risk | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Saint Lucia | No risk | Risk countries | 9 months or older |
Saint Martin | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | No risk | Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Samoa | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
São Tomé and Príncipe | No risk | Risk countries[note 5] | 1 year or older |
Saudi Arabia | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Senegal | Risk country | Risk countries[note 5] | 9 months or older |
Seychelles | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Sierra Leone | Risk country | All countries | Unknown |
Singapore | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Sint Eustatius | No risk | Risk countries | 6 months or older |
Sint Maarten | No risk | Risk countries | 9 months or older |
Solomon Islands | No risk | Risk countries | 9 months or older |
Somalia | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
South Africa | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
South Sudan | Risk country | All countries | 9 months or older |
Sri Lanka | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Sudan | Risk country | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Suriname | Risk country | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Tanzania | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Thailand | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Togo | Risk country | All countries | 9 months or older |
Trinidad and Tobago | Risk region: Trinidad |
Risk countries | 1 year or older |
Uganda | Risk country | All countries | 1 year or older |
United Arab Emirates | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
Venezuela | Risk country | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Wallis and Futuna | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Zambia | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 1 year or older |
Zimbabwe | No risk | Risk countries[note 4] | 9 months or older |
|
References
- ^ Use During Pregnancy and Breastfeeding
- ^ "Stamaril powder and solvent for suspension for injection in pre-filled syringe - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC)". (emc). 9 September 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2019.
- ^ "YF-Vax". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 6 August 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2019.
- ^ PMID 23909008.
- ^ a b "Yellow Fever Vaccine - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 30 April 2022.
- PMID 26086636.
- ^ "Yellow Fever Vaccine". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 13 December 2011. Archived from the original on 9 December 2015. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
- ^ PMID 18039952.
- hdl:10665/325771. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
- hdl:10665/345533. WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2021.02.
- ^ "How WHO is supporting ongoing vaccination efforts during the COVID-19 pandemic". www.who.int. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- PMID 21798053.
- ^ "Joint Statement on Mosquito Control in the United States from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)". Environmental Protection Agency. 3 May 2000. Archived from the original on 10 October 2006. Retrieved 25 June 2006.
- ^ a b "International Travel and Health. Chapter 6 - Vaccine-preventable diseases and vaccines (2019 update)" (PDF). World Health Organization. United Nations. 2020. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
- S2CID 267128946.
- ^ "Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization (SAGE)". www.who.int. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- ^ "Yellow fever vaccination booster not needed". www.who.int. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- ^ "Vaccine Failure - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- ^ "Vaccines" (Press release). World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on 9 June 2013.
- ^ "What are the risks of dying from having the yellow fever vaccine?". 11 January 2019.
- PMID 34075212.
- S2CID 25697965.
- ^ CDC (10 December 2021). "Flu Vaccine and People with Egg Allergies". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- ^ "Yellow Fever Vaccine Information Statement". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). April 2020. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013.
- ^ "Yellow Fever". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Archived from the original on 16 January 2013.
- PMID 18419548.
- ^ "Yellow fever". www.who.int. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- PMID 24079979.
- PMID 24651762.
- PMID 27707454.
- PMID 11599337.
- ^ "Yellow fever". www.kidney.de. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- ^ Wezam T. "Where are the Scientists of World Health Organization". Academia.edu.
- ^ "Yellow Fever in Nigeria - Alert - Level 2, Practice Enhanced Precautions - Travel Health Notices | Travelers' Health". wwwnc.cdc.gov. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- PMID 18846033.
- ^ "Yellow Fever - Chapter 4 - 2020 Yellow Book | Travelers' Health | CDC". wwwnc.cdc.gov. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-19-976901-8. Archivedfrom the original on 1 July 2011.
- ^ Kerr JA, Downs WG (1956). Last refuge of Yellow Fever. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- ^ "Types of Immunity to a Disease | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 6 April 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
- ISBN 0-300-07015-2.
- ^ PMID 20589188.
- PMID 21219987.
- .
- ^ "Blood safety and availability". www.who.int. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- PMID 26636066.
- from the original on 20 December 2016.
- ^ "Max Theiler – Biography". Archived from the original on 20 January 2009. Retrieved 15 January 2009.
- ^ "World War II Hepatitis Outbreak Was Biggest in History". Associated Press. 16 April 1987.
- ^ "Hepatitis B". www.who.int. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- JSTOR 24414669.
- ^ "Protection Against Viral Hepatitis Recommendations of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee (ACIP)". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- PMID 30194325.
- PMID 19327647.
- ^ National Institutes of Health (27 July 2016). "NIH launches early-stage yellow fever vaccine trial" (Press release). United States Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
- ^ National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) (1 June 2018), A Phase I Trial to Evaluate the Safety, Reactogenicity, and Immunogenicity of MVA-BN Yellow Fever Vaccine With and Without Montanide ISA-720 Adjuvant in 18-45 Year Old Healthy Volunteers (NCT number: NCT02743455), United States National Library of Medicine, retrieved 14 July 2019.
- ^ "The Yellow fever initiative: an introduction". World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on 10 May 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
- ^ "COVAX Facility". www.gavi.org. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- ^ a b Kupferschmidt K (4 April 2016). "Angolan yellow fever outbreak highlights dangerous vaccine shortage". Science. Archived from the original on 25 April 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- ^ "Yellow Fever Vaccine: Current Outlook" (PDF). Unicef. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
- ^ S2CID 7983551.
- ^ "Fever Vaccine: Current Outlook November 2013" (PDF). UNICEF. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
- ^ "Complacency Led to Resurgence of Yellow Fever". globalhealthnow.org. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
- ^ hdl:10665/246236. WHO/YF/SAGE/16.1.
- ^ "Yellow Fever Deaths Reach 250 in Angola | HealthMap". healthmap.org. Archived from the original on 29 April 2016. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
- ^ S2CID 13106004.
- ^ "Angola extends yellow fever vaccination campaign to Huambo and Benguela provinces". World Health Organization (WHO) (Press release). Archived from the original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- ISSN 0036-8075.
- ^ "UN bungles response to Africa's yellow fever outbreak". Archived from the original on 6 August 2016. Retrieved 5 August 2016.
- PMID 28643507.
- ^ "NIH launches early-stage yellow fever vaccine trial". 26 July 2016. Archived from the original on 26 August 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2016.
- ^ "Lower doses of yellow fever vaccine could be used in emergencies". World Health Organization (WHO) (Press release). 17 June 2016. Archived from the original on 18 June 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2016.
- ^ Soucheray S (26 November 2018). "Study affirms fractional dosing with yellow fever vaccine". CIDRAP News. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
- ^ "Yellow Fever vaccines prices 05-02-2021" (PDF). Unicef. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
- ^ "Countries with risk of yellow fever transmission and countries requiring yellow fever vaccination (May 2021)". www.who.int. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- ^ "Nigeria - Traveler view | Travelers' Health | CDC". wwwnc.cdc.gov. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- ^ a b "Countries with risk of yellow fever transmission and countries requiring yellow fever vaccination (July 2019)". World Health Organization. United Nations. 4 July 2019. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
External links
- Yellow Fever Vaccine at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
- "Yellow Fever Vaccine". Drug Information Portal. U.S. National Library of Medicine.