Alcide De Gasperi
Alcide De Gasperi | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Prime Minister of Italy | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In office 10 December 1945 – 17 August 1953 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Lieutenant General | The Prince of Piedmont | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Preceded by | President of the Common Assembly | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In office 11 May 1954 – 19 August 1954 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Paul-Henri Spaak | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Succeeded by | Giuseppe Pella | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Born | Alcide Amedeo Francesco De Gasperi 3 April 1881 Pieve Tesino, Tyrol, Austria-Hungary | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Died | 19 August 1954 (aged 73) Borgo Valsugana, Trentino, Italy | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Francesca Romani
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Children | 4 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Alcide Amedeo Francesco De Gasperi (Italian: [alˈtʃiːde de ˈɡasperi]; 3 April 1881 – 19 August 1954) was an Italian politician who founded the Christian Democracy party and served as prime minister of Italy in eight successive coalition governments from 1945 to 1953.[1]
De Gasperi was the last prime minister of the
A devout Catholic, he was one of the founding fathers of the European Union along with fellow Italian Altiero Spinelli.
Early years
De Gasperi was born in 1881 in Pieve Tesino in Tyrol,[2] now part of the Italian region of Trentino-Alto Adige, which at that time belonged to Austria-Hungary. His father was a local police officer of limited financial means. From 1896 De Gasperi was active in the Social Christian movement. In 1900 he joined the Faculty of Literature and Philosophy in Vienna, where he played an important role in the inception of the Christian student movement. He was very much inspired by the Rerum novarum encyclical issued by Pope Leo XIII in 1891. In 1904 he took an active part in student demonstrations in favour of an Italian language university.[3] Imprisoned with other protesters during the inauguration of the Italian faculty of law in Innsbruck, he was released after twenty days. In 1905, De Gasperi obtained a degree in philology.
In 1905, he began to work as editor of the newspaper La Voce Cattolica (The Catholic Voice) which was replaced in September 1906 by Il Trentino and he soon became its editor. In his newspaper, he often took positions in favor of a cultural autonomy for Trentino and in defense of Italian culture in Trentino, in contrast to the Germanisation plans of the German nationalists in Tyrol. At the time, in disagreement with other politicians like Cesare Battisti, he did not seek unification with Italy.
In 1911, he became a member of Parliament for the
Opposition to Fascism
In 1919, he was among of the founders of the
As Mussolini's hold on the Italian government grew stronger, he soon diverged with the Fascists over constitutional changes to the powers of the executive and to the election system (the Acerbo Law), and to Fascist violence against the constitutional parties, culminating in the murder of Giacomo Matteotti. The PPI split, and De Gasperi became secretary of the remaining anti-Fascist group in May 1924. In November 1926, in a climate of overt violence and intimidation by the Fascists, the PPI was dissolved.
De Gasperi was arrested in March 1927 and sentenced to four years in prison. The Vatican negotiated his release. A year and a half in prison nearly broke De Gasperi's health. After his release in July 1928, he was unemployed and in serious financial hardship, until in 1929 his ecclesiastical contacts secured him a job as a cataloger in the Vatican Library, where he spent the next fourteen years until the collapse of Fascism in July 1943.
During the 1930s, De Gasperi wrote a regular international column for the review L'Illustrazione Vaticana in which he depicted the chief political battle as one between communism and Christianity. In 1934, he rejoiced in the defeat of the Austrian Social Democrats, whom he condemned for "de-Christianizing" the country, and in 1937 he declared that the German Church was correct in preferring Nazism to Bolshevism.[4]
Founding Christian Democracy
During World War II, he organized the establishment of the first (and at the time, illegal) Christian Democracy (DC) party, drawing upon the ideology of the PPI. In January 1943, he published "Ideas for Reconstruction" (Italian: Idee per la Ricostruzione), which amounted to a program for the party. He became the first general secretary of the new party in 1944.
De Gasperi was the undisputed head of the Christian Democrats, the party that dominated Parliament for decades. Although his control of the DC appeared almost complete, he had to carefully balance different factions and interests, especially with regards to relations with the Vatican, social reform, and foreign policy.
When
Prime Minister of Italy
From 1945 to 1953, he was the prime minister of eight successive DC-led governments. His eight-year rule remains a landmark of political longevity for one leader in modern Italian politics. During his successive governments, Italy
In December 1945, he became prime minister for the first time, succeeding Ferruccio Parri and leading a coalition government that included both Italian Communist Party (PCI) and Italian Socialist Party (PSI), along with other minor parties like Italian Republican Party (PRI), Italian Liberal Party (PLI) and Action Party (PdA). Communist leader Palmiro Togliatti acted as deputy prime minister. He tried to soften the terms of the pending Allied peace treaty with Italy and secured financial and economic aid through the European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan) – which was opposed by the Communists.
In June 1946, a constitutional referendum to decide whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic resulted in 54% of the vote favouring a republic. De Gasperi served as provisional head of state from 12 June 1946 until the Constituent Assembly elected Liberal politician Enrico De Nicola provisional head of state on 28 June 1946.
As chief of the Italian delegation at the
One of his most striking achievements in foreign policy was the
American support
De Gasperi enjoyed considerable support in the US, where he was considered able to oppose the rising tide of communism – in particular the PCI, which was the biggest communist party in a Western European democracy. In January 1947 he visited the US. The chief goals of the trip were to soften the terms of the pending peace treaty with Italy and to obtain immediate economic assistance. His ten-day tour, engineered by media mogul Henry Luce – the owner of Time magazine – and his wife, Clare Boothe Luce – the future ambassador to Rome – was viewed as a media "triumph", prompting positive comments by a wide section of the American press.[5]
During his meetings in the United States, De Gasperi managed to secure a financially modest but politically significant US$100 million
In May 1947,
General election in 1948
The general elections in April 1948 were heavily influenced by the Cold War era confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States. After the Soviet-orchestrated February 1948 Communist coup in Czechoslovakia, the US became alarmed about Soviet intentions and feared that, if the left-wing coalition were to win the elections, the Soviet-funded PCI would draw Italy into the Soviet Union's sphere of influence.
In the United States, a campaign was launched to prevent a victory of the Communist-dominated
The election campaign remains unmatched in verbal aggression and fanaticism in Italy's history on both sides. The election was between two competing visions of the future of Italian society. On the one hand, a Roman Catholic, conservative and capitalist Italy, represented by the governing Christian Democrats of De Gasperi; on the other, a secular, revolutionary and socialist society, represented by the Popular Democratic Front. The Christian Democrat
The PCI were de facto leading the Popular Democratic Front, and had effectively marginalized the PSI, which eventually suffered because of this in these elections, in terms of parliamentary seats and political power.[13] The Socialists also had been hurt by the secession of a social-democratic faction led by Giuseppe Saragat, which contested the election with the concurrent list of Socialist Unity.
The PCI had difficulties in restraining its more militant members, who, in the period immediately after the war, had engaged in violent acts of reprisals. The areas affected by the violence (the so-called "Red Triangle" of
The Christian Democrats won a resounding victory with 48.5% of the vote (their best result ever) and strong majorities in both the Chamber of Deputies and Senate. The Communists received only half of the votes they had in 1946. With absolute majorities in both chambers, De Gasperi could have formed an exclusively Christian Democratic government. Instead, he formed a "
Social security reforms
In domestic policy, a number of social security reforms were carried out by various ministers of De Gasperi's cabinets in the areas of rents and social housing, unemployment insurance and pensions.
On 9 January 1946, the government reorganised the health insurance system for sharecroppers, tenant farmers and agricultural workers, with a flat-rate daily indemnity of Lit.28 for women and Lit.60 for men (i.e. 3% and 7% of the average gross industrial wage for 1947) for a maximum of 180 days a year and free medical and hospital assistance provided through INAM.[15] On 19 April 1946 the government reorganised the health insurance system for industrial employees, with a daily sickness indemnity equal to 50% of earnings, for a maximum of 180 days a year, a flat-rate maternity indemnity equal to a lump sum of Lit.1000 for 120 days (1% of average gross for industrial wage in 1947), a funeral allowance and free medical, hospital, and pharmaceutical assistance through INAM. On 31 October 1947 the Italian Parliament approved a bill that reorganised the health insurance system for service employees (e.g. banking and commerce), with a daily sickness indemnity equal to 50% of earnings for a maximum of 180 days a year, a flat-rate maternity payment, funeral allowance, and free hospital, medical, and pharmaceutical assistance through INAM.[15]
On 28 February 1949, De Gasperi launched a seven-year plan for social housing to increase the stock of economic housing by means of construction or purchase of economic accommodation. The law also established a special housing fund (INA-Casa) within the National Institute for Insurance (Istituto Nazionale delle Assicurazioni, or INA).[15] Moreover, on 29 July 1947 the government established a Fund For Social Solidarity within INPS in order to pay graduated supplementary allowances to all pensions, compensating for inflation.[15]
A law of 29 April 1949 introduced new provisions for unemployment insurance and labor policy. A Central Commission for Work Training and Assistance for the Unemployed was set up with the task of monitoring the state of the labor market and the conditions of the unemployed, while regulations concerning the replacement of the unemployed into the labor market (collocamento) were introduced. Provincial offices for Labour and Full Employment were also established, with local sections, which organized waiting lists, training courses, and the allocation of available jobs, amongst other services. Unemployment indemnity was increased to Lit. 200 per day (approximately 17% of the average gross industrial wage for 1949) and its duration was extended from 120 to 180 days. Unemployment insurance was extended to agricultural workers, and a special unemployment benefit (sussidio straordinario di disoccupazione) was introduced, paid under exceptional circumstances; flat-rate benefit with ad hoc determined level for 90 to 180 days. Vocational training and professional qualification programmes for the unemployed were also introduced, along with a Fund for Professional Training of Workers.[15]
On 29 April 1949, a law was approved that introduced new provisions for unemployment insurance and labor policy. A Central Commission for Work Training and Assistance for the Unemployed was established with the task of monitoring the state of the labor market and the conditions of the unemployed.[15]
On 23 March 1948, the National Institute for Assistance of the Orphans of Italian Workers and the National Institute for Italian Pensioners were established, providing benefits and services for needy pensioners.[15] On 26 August 1950, the government introduced various regulations covering maternity insurance for all female employees.[15]
In 1952, the party overwhelmingly endorsed his authority over the government and over the party. However, it was also the start of his decline. He came under increasing criticism from the emerging left wing in the party. Their main accusations were that he was too cautious in social and economic reform, that he stifled debate and that he subordinated the party to the interests of government.
1953 general election and decline
The
The
The campaign of the opposition to the "Scam Law" achieved its goal. The government coalition (DC, PSDI, PLI, PRI,
Technically, the government won the election, winning a clear working
In 1954, De Gasperi also had to give up the leadership of the party,[18] when Amintore Fanfani was appointed new Secretary of the Christian Democracy in June.[19]
Death and legacy
On 19 August 1954, De Gasperi died in
"De Gasperi was against exacerbating conflict", according to his former secretary and former Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti. "He taught us to search for compromise, to mediate."[21]
He is considered to be one of the
Personal life
On 14 June 1922, De Gasperi married Francesca Romani (30 August 1894 – 20 August 1998)[24][25][26] and had four daughters, Maria Romana, Lucia, Cecilia and Paola.
In Florestano Vancini's film The Assassination of Matteotti (1973), De Gasperi is played by Ezio Marano.
Electoral history
Election | House | Constituency | Party | Votes | Result | |
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1911 | Imperial Council | Tyrol | UPPT
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— | Elected | |
1921 | Chamber of Deputies | Trento | PPI | — | Elected | |
1924 | Chamber of Deputies | Trento | PPI | — | Elected | |
1946 | Constituent Assembly | Trento–Bolzano | DC | 17,206 | Elected | |
1948 | Chamber of Deputies | Trento–Bolzano | DC | 49,666 | Elected | |
1953 | Chamber of Deputies | Trento–Bolzano | DC | 63,762 | Elected |
See also
Notes
- ^ Alcide De Gasperi (Italian statesman). britannica.com
- ^ "Alcide De Gasperi. Democracy beyond Borders" (European Union History Series). European Parliament. 2018. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
- ^ a b "De Gasperi al bivio tra Vienna e Roma". Corriere della Sera (in Italian). 1 September 2014. Retrieved 17 January 2021.
- ^ Ginsborg, Paul (2003). A History of Contemporary Italy: Society and Politics, 1943–1988. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 49.
- ^ Steven F. White. (Fall/Winter 2005). De Gasperi through American Eyes: Media and Public Opinion, 1945–53, in Italian Politics and Society (61).
- ^ Juan Carlos Martinez Oliva. (2007). The Italian Stabilization of 1947: Domestic and International Factors, Institute of European Studies.
- ^ The Cold War Begins, Frank Eugene Smitha
- ^ How to Hang On[permanent dead link], Time, 19 April 1948
- ^ Man from the Mountains[permanent dead link], Time, 25 May 1953
- ^ "Show of Force"[permanent dead link], Time, 12 April 1948
- ^ "How to Hang On"[permanent dead link], Time, 19 April 1948
- ^ "Fertility vote galvanises Vatican", BBC News, 13 June 2005
- ^ The Communist party gained more than the two-thirds of the seats won by the joint list. ("Number of MPs for each political group during the First Legislature", Italian Chamber of Deputies website.
- ^ New York Times, 16 February 1949, quoted in De Gasperi through American Eyes: Media and Public Opinion, 1945–53, by Steven F. White, in: Italian Politics and Society, No.61 Fall/Winter 2005
- ^ a b c d e f g h Growth to Limits: The Western European Welfare States Since World War II Volume 4 edited by Peter Flora
- ^ Also its parliamentarian exam had a disruptive effect: "Among the iron pots of political forces that faced in the Cold War, Senate cracked as earthenware pot": Buonomo, Giampiero (2014). "Come il Senato si scoprì vaso di coccio". L'Ago e Il Filo. Archived from the original on 24 March 2016. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
- ^ (in Italian) Come il Senato si scoprì vaso di coccio, in L'Ago e il filo, 2014
- ^ Cabinet Maker, Time, 27 July 1953
- ^ De Gasperi's Fall, Time, 10 August 1953
- ^ (in Italian) Servo di Dio Alcide De Gasperi, Santi beati
- ^ All the prime minister's men, by Alexander Stille, The Independent, 24 September 1995
- ^ Alcide De Gasperi's humanist and European message Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, European People's Party
- ^ In the beginning was De Gasperi Archived 12 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine, The Florentine, 4 October 2007
- ^ "Se ne va a più di cent' anni la moglie di Alcide de Gasperi – la Repubblica.it". 21 August 1998.
- ^ "Famiglia Cristiana n.18 del 7-5-2000 – De Gasperi, mio padre".
- ^ "Francesca Romani". 30 August 1894.
Further reading
- Bigaran, Mariapia. "Alcide De Gasperi: the apprenticeship of a political leader", Modern Italy Nov 2009, Vol. 14 Issue 4, pp 415–30
- Carrillo, Elisa. Alcide De Gasperi: The Long Apprenticeship. University of Notre Dame Press, 1965.
- Cau, Maurizio. "Alcide De Gasperi: a political thinker or a thinking politician?" Modern Italy Nov 2009, Vol. 14 Issue 4, pp 431–45
- Duggan, Christopher. Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796 (2008) ch 27–28
- Ginsborg, Paul. A history of contemporary Italy: society and politics, 1943–1988 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).
- Lorenzini, Sara. "The roots of a 'statesman': De Gasperi's foreign policy", Modern Italy Nov 2009, Vol. 14 Issue 4, pp 473–84
- Pombeni, Paolo, and Giuliana Nobili Schiera. "Alcide de Gasperi: 1881–1954-a political life in a troubled century", Modern Italy Nov2009, Vol. 14 Issue 4, pp 379–401.
- White, Steven. "In search of Alcide De Gasperi: innovations in Italian scholarship since 2003". Journal of Modern Italian Studies 15#3 (2010): 462–470. Historiography
- Wilsford, David, ed. Political leaders of contemporary Western Europe: a biographical dictionary (Greenwood, 1995) pp 77–83.
In Italian
- (in Italian) Pietro Scoppola, La proposta politica di De Gasperi, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1977.
- (in Italian) Giulio Andreotti, Intervista su De Gasperi; a cura di Antonio Gambino, Roma-Bari, Laterza, 1977.
- (in Italian) Giulio Andreotti, De Gasperi visto da vicino, Milano, Rizzoli, 1986.
- (in Italian) Nico Perrone, De Gasperi e l'America, Palermo, Sellerio, 1995.
- (in Italian) Alcide De Gasperi: un percorso europeo, a cura di Eckart Conze, Gustavo Corni, Paolo Pombeni, Bologna, Il mulino, 2004.
- (in Italian) Piero Craveri, De Gasperi, Bologna, Il Mulino, 2006. ISBN 978-8815-25946-2
- (in Italian) ISBN 978-88-6944-810-2
External links
- Works by or about Alcide De Gasperi at Internet Archive
- Alcide De Gasperi and his age: A chronology of the Statesman's life and works, Alcide De Gasperi Foundation
- Alcide De Gasperi (1881–1954) by Pier Luigi Ballini, Alcide De Gasperi in the history of Europe
- Alcide De Gasperi Foundation
- Private papers of Alcide De Gasperi are deposited at the Historical Archives of the European Union in Florence
- (in Italian) De Gasperi: un politico europeo venuto dal futuro, Centro Studi Malfatti
- Newspaper clippings about Alcide De Gasperi in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW