Amintore Fanfani
Amintore Fanfani | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Prime Minister of Italy | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In office 18 April 1987 – 29 July 1987 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
President | Francesco Cossiga | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Bettino Craxi | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Succeeded by | Giovanni Goria | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In office 1 December 1982 – 4 August 1983 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
President | Sandro Pertini | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Giovanni Spadolini | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Succeeded by | Bettino Craxi | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In office 27 July 1960 – 22 June 1963 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
President | Giovanni Gronchi Antonio Segni | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Deputy | Attilio Piccioni | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Fernando Tambroni | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Succeeded by | Giovanni Leone | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In office 2 July 1958 – 16 February 1959 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
President | Giovanni Gronchi | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Deputy | Antonio Segni | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Adone Zoli | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Succeeded by | Antonio Segni | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In office 19 January 1954 – 10 February 1954 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
President | Luigi Einaudi | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Giuseppe Pella | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Succeeded by | Mario Scelba | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Acting President of Italy | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In office 15 June 1978 – 9 July 1978 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Prime Minister | Giulio Andreotti | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Giovanni Leone | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Succeeded by | Sandro Pertini | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
President of the Senate of the Republic | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In office 9 July 1985 – 17 April 1987 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Francesco Cossiga | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Succeeded by | Giovanni Malagodi | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In office 5 July 1976 – 1 December 1982 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Giovanni Spagnolli | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Succeeded by | Tommaso Morlino | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In office 5 June 1968 – 26 June 1973 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Ennio Zelioli-Lanzini | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Succeeded by | Giovanni Spagnolli | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Personal details | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Born | Pieve Santo Stefano, Tuscany, Kingdom of Italy | 6 February 1908||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Died | 20 November 1999 Rome, Lazio, Italy | (aged 91)||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Political party | National Fascist Party (1935–1943) Christian Democracy (1943–1994) Italian People's Party (1994–1999) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Height | 1.63 m (5 ft 4 in)[1] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Spouses | Biancarosa Provasoli
(m. 1939; died 1968)Maria Pia Tavazzani (m. 1975) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Children | 7 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Alma mater | Catholic University of the Sacred Heart | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Occupation | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Amintore Fanfani (Italian pronunciation:
Beginning as a protégé of
Fanfani served in numerous
Fanfani and the long-time liberal leader Giovanni Giolitti still hold the record as the only statesmen to have served as prime minister of Italy in five non-consecutive periods of office. He was sometimes nicknamed Cavallo di Razza ("Purebred Horse"),[7] thanks to his innate political ability; however, his detractors simply called him "Pony" due to his small size.[8]
Early life
Fanfani was born in
In 1920, at only 12 years old, Fanfani joined
Under the regime of Benito Mussolini, he joined the National Fascist Party (PNF) supporting the corporatist ideas of the regime promoting collaboration between the classes, which he defended in many articles. "Some day", he once wrote, "the European continent will be organized into a vast supranational area guided by Italy and Germany. Those areas will take authoritarian governments and synchronize their constitutions with Fascist principles."[14]
He also wrote for the official magazine of racism in Fascist Italy, The Defence of the Race (
On 22 April 1939, Fanfani married Biancarosa Provasoli, a 25-year-old lady who grew up in a bourgeois family from Milan.[17] The couple had two sons and five daughters, born between 1940 and 1955.[18]
During the years he spent in Milan, he knew Giuseppe Dossetti and Giorgio La Pira. They formed a group known as the "little professors" who lived ascetically in monastery cells and walked barefoot.
They formed the nucleus of Democratic Initiative, an intensely Catholic but economically reformist wing of the post-war Christian Democratic Party,
In Milan, Fanfani wrote "
Early political career
Upon his return to Italy, he joined the newly founded Christian Democracy (DC), of which his friend Dossetti was serving as deputy secretary. He was as one of the youngest party leaders and a protégé of Alcide De Gasperi, the undisputed leader of the party for the following decade.[22] Fanfani represented a particular ideological position, that of conservative Catholics who favoured socio-economic interventionism, which was very influential in the 1950s and 1960s but which gradually lost its appeal. "Capitalism requires such a dread of loss," he once wrote, "such a forgetfulness of human brotherhood, such a certainty that a man's neighbour is merely a customer to be gained or a rival to be overthrown, and all these are inconceivable in the Catholic conception [...] There is an unbridgeable gulf between the Catholic and the capitalist conception of life."[14] Private economic initiative, in his view, was justifiable only if harnessed to the common good.[23]
In the
Under De Gasperi, Fanfani took on a succession of ministries. From June 1947 until January 1950, he served as
"He can keep going for 36 hours on catnaps, apples and a few sips of water," according to a news report in Time magazine. Once, when someone proposed Fanfani for yet another ministry, De Gasperi refused. "If I keep on appointing Fanfani to various ministries," he said, "I am sure that one of these days I will open the door to my study and find Fanfani sitting at my desk."[20]
Leader of the party and prime minister
First government
On 12 January 1954, after only 5 months in power, Prime Minister
However, the cabinet lasted only 23 days when it failed to win approval in the Parliament, being rejected by the Chamber of Deputies with 260 votes in favor, 303 votes against and 12 abstentions out of 563 present. On 10 February 1954,
Secretary of the Christian Democracy
As secretary, he reorganized and rejuvenated the national party organization of the Christian Democrats, decreasing its strong dependence on the Catholic Church and the national government which had typified the De Gasperi period.[37] During his tenure, he built a close relation with Enrico Mattei, the CEO of Eni. They remained key allies until Mattei's death in October 1962.[38]
However, his activist and sometimes
In May 1955, Einaudi's term as president of the Italian Republic came to an end, and Parliament had to choose his successor. Fanfani was promoting for the office the
During his secretariat, he built good relations both with United States President
General election in 1958 and second government
In the 1958 general election, Fanfani run as secretary of the Christian Democrats and main candidate to become the next prime minister. The electoral result was similar to the one of five years before. The Christian Democrats gained 42.4% of votes, nearly doubling Palmiro Togliatti's Communist Party, which came second. However, the poor results of the other small centrist and secular parties meant the continuation of the same problems of political instability within the centrist coalition that had characterised the previous legislature.[43]
The Christian Democracy resulted even more polarized between Fanfani's leftist faction and the opposite one which urged for a
He then decided not to resign immediately as secretary of the DC, wanting to bring the party behind him, at least until a new congress. He started an active foreign policy, along the lines of the so-called "neo-
The unprecedented concentration of power that he had achieved was also the main reason of his second government's decline. The outraged conservative opposition resulted in a progressive breakdown of the internal majority faction, "Democratic Initiative".[48] In January 1959, a conspicuous group of Christian Democrats started voting against their own government, forcing Fanfani to resign on 26 January 1959, after only six months in power.[49] On 16 February 1959, Antonio Segni sworn in as new prime minister.[50] In March 1959, Fanfani resigned as party's secretary too, and Aldo Moro became the new leader. After few weeks, he founded a new faction, known as "Nuove Cronache" ("New Chronicles").[51]
In party's congress in October 1959, Moro was slightly confirmed secretary, after a thought battle with Fanfani, who was defeated thanks to the decisive vote of the right-wing faction of Mario Scelba and Giulio Andreotti.[52]
When the
Third and fourth government
His
In February 1962, after the national congress of the Christian Democracy, Fanfani reorganised his cabinet and gained the benign abstention of the socialist leader Pietro Nenni.[57]
During this term as prime minister, Fanfani carried out a number of reforms in areas such as health, education, and social security. On 8 April 1962 the cabinet introduced broad provisions covering building areas. Local governments were obliged to provide plans of areas suitable for economic housing, while strict price controls for building areas were introduced to prevent speculation.[29]
On 31 December 1962, the Parliament approved a law that extended compulsory education to the age of 14 and introduced a single unified curriculum, lasting for a 3-year period after primary education.[29] On 12 August 1962, Fanfani introduced a supplementary pension payment, equal to one-twelfth of the annual amount of pension minima, while also introducing child supplements for pensioners.[29] Moreover, on 5 March 1963, he introduced a voluntary pension insurance scheme for housewives.[29]
On 19 January 1963, the government proposed a bill that extended the insurance against occupational diseases to
In his three years rule, thanks to the key support of the PSI, Fanfani approved the nationalization of
General election in 1963 and resignation
Despite a good approval in public opinion, his
In the
Minister and president of the Senate
In August 1964, President
In March 1965, Fanfani was appointed
In the
On 26 September 1968, Fanfani lost his wife, Biancarosa, who died of cerebral venous thrombosis, at only 54-year-old.[78]
In March 1970, after the fall of
In the 1971 presidential election, Fanfani was proposed as Christian Democracy's candidate for the Presidency of the Republic. Once again the move failed, being weakened by the divisions within his own party and the candidacy of the socialist Francesco De Martino, who received votes from PCI, PSI and some PSDI members.[80] Fanfani retired after several unsuccessful ballots and, at the twenty-third round, Giovanni Leone, who was Fanfani's rival in the 1964 election, was finally elected with a centre-right majority.[81] On 10 March 1972, Leone appointed Fanfani Senator for life.[23][82]
Second term as secretary
In June 1973 Fanfani was elected secretary of the Christian Democracy for a second term, replacing his former protégé Arnaldo Forlani, who was now a supporter of centrist policies. As such, he led the campaign for the referendum on repealing the law allowing divorce, which was approved by the parliament in 1970.[83] Those voting "yes" wanted to outlaw divorce as had been the case before the law came into effect, and those voting "no" wanted to retain the law and their newly gained right to divorce. The voting method caused significant confusion with many people not understanding that they had to vote "no" to be able to divorce or vote "yes" to outlaw divorce.[84]
The DC and the neo-fascist MSI intensely campaigned for a yes vote to abolish the law and make divorce illegal again. Their main themes were the safeguarding of the traditional nuclear family model and the Roman Catechism;[85][86] while most left-wing political forces, including PCI and PSI, supported the "no" faction. Fanfani thought that a "no" victory could have given him the control of in his own party again; in fact other key figures like Moro, Rumor, Emilio Colombo and Francesco Cossiga, who believed in the defeat at the referendum, kept a low profile during the campaign.[87]
Despite Fanfani's activism, the "no" front was defeated by margin of 59.3% to 40.7% on a voter turnout of 87.7%, thus allowing the divorce laws to remain in force.[88] The soundly defeat in the divorce referendum forced his resignation as party secretary in July 1975. The new secretary of the party was Benigno Zaccagnini, a Christian leftist who was initially supported by Fanfani, but after his ideas of starting a cooperation with the Communist Party, Fanfani, Andreotti and Flaminio Piccoli, tried to forced Zaccagnini to resignation, but they failed.[89]
On 3 August 1975, Fanfani married his second wife,
On 5 July 1976, Fanfani was elected President of the Senate for a second term, a position that he held until 1 December 1982.
Kidnapping of Aldo Moro
In January 1978, Andreotti's government fell due to the withdrawal of support from the PCI, which wanted to be directly involved in the government, an hypothesis however rejected by the Christian Democracy.[94]
In March 1978, the political crisis was overcome by the intervention of Aldo Moro, who proposed a new cabinet, again formed only by Christian Democratic politicians, but with positive confidence votes from the other parties, including Berlinguer's PCI.
During the kidnapping of his long-time friend but also rival, despite Andreotti and Cossiga's positions, Fanfani did not refuse every possibility of negotiations with the terrorists. Moro was killed by the Red Brigades in May 1978.[98] Fanfani was the only Christian Democratic leader to be allowed by Moro's family to participate to the funeral.[99]
Last terms as prime minister
In June 1981, Giovanni Spadolini, a member of the Republican Party, was appointed prime minister, becoming the first non-Christian Democrat to hold the office since the foundation of the republic.[100]
In November 1982, Spadolini was forced to resign due to the so-called "godmothers' quarrel", a political conflict between ministers Beniamino Andreatta and Rino Formica about the separation between Ministry of Treasury and Bank of Italy.[101] Fanfani, who was still serving as President of the Senate, received the task from President Sandro Pertini of forming a new government and sworn in on 1 December 1982.[102] The cabinet was composed by members of DC, PSI, PSDI, and PLI.[103] Fanfani resigned on 29 April 1983, when, after months of tense relations in the majority, the central committee of the Socialist Party, meeting on 22 April, decided the withdrew its support to the government, calling for new elections.[104]
The 1983 general election resulted in a big loss for DC and its new secretary, Ciriaco De Mita. The Christian Democrats in fact lost more than five percentage points from the previous election, while the PSI gained ground.[105] On 4 August 1983, the socialist leader Bettino Craxi succeeded Fanfani at the head of the government.[106] De Mita accused Fanfani for the electoral defeat and did not candidate him as President of the Senate, preferring Francesco Cossiga.[107][108] After this fact, it was even clearer how Fanfani had by then lost much of his political power and control over the party.[109]
In the 1985 presidential election, Cossiga was elected as president with 752 votes out of 977.[110] His candidacy was endorsed by the DC, but supported also by communists, socialists, social democrats, liberals and republicans. This was the first time an Italian presidential candidate had won the election on the first ballot, where a two-thirds majority is necessary.[111] On 9 July 1985, Fanfani was re-elected President of the Senate, for a third term.[112]
In April 1987, De Mita decided to drop his support for
After the premiership
In Goria's cabinet, Fanfani was appointed
Ciriaco De Mita became the new prime minister and Fanfani held the office of
In 1992, Fanfani was elected to the prestigious office of chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the Senate and held the role until 1994.
Death and legacy
Fanfani died in Rome on 20 November 1999, at the age 91.[125]
Fanfani is still a controversial figure in Italian politics. Admirers emphasize his reformist agenda and his ambition to cooperate with socialists, laying the groundwork for the birth of the
He had always believed in the corporate state, considering Fascism only as a "temporary aberration" of corporatism. He never tried to hide his fascist past, but unlike many Italians, he freely admitted that he was wrong.[14]
Fanfani held all positions and offices that a politician could possibly aspire to, except the one he craved most, the presidency of the Republic. His authoritarian nature and factionalism within the Christian Democracy turned out to be the biggest obstacles to the emergence of "Fanfanism", the Italian version of Gaullism, and one by one he lost all his offices.[23]
In an obituary for La Stampa, journalist Filippo Ceccarelli reflected that Fanfani's commitment to public service inspired the values of the state broadcaster RAI, which matured during his political career.[10]
Electoral history
Election | House | Constituency | Party | Votes | Result | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1946 | Constituent Assembly | Siena–Arezzo–Grosseto | DC | 15,692 | Elected | |
1948 | Chamber of Deputies | Siena–Arezzo–Grosseto | DC | 35,515 | Elected | |
1953 | Chamber of Deputies | Siena–Arezzo–Grosseto | DC | 44,816 | Elected | |
1958 | Chamber of Deputies | Siena–Arezzo–Grosseto | DC | 45,956 | Elected | |
1963 | Chamber of Deputies | Siena–Arezzo–Grosseto | DC | 58,791 | Elected | |
1968 | Senate of the Republic | Arezzo | DC | 41,070 | Elected |
References
- ^ [1]
- ISBN 978-1-134-75876-0.
- Enciclopedia Treccani.
- ^ Franzosi, The Puzzle of Strikes, p. 202
- ^ "La politica mediterranea dell'Italia. Il governo italiano e la Democrazia Cristiana di fronte al mondo arabo negli anni del centro-sinistra (1963–1972)"
- ^ "Il primo governo di centrosinistra: Fanfani 1962"
- ^ "Ebbe tutte le cariche, gli sfuggì solo il Quirinale"
- ^ "Amintore Fanfani" – Biografia
- ^ Gli uomini che fecero la Repubblica
- ^ a b Ceccarelli, Filippo (21 November 1999). "Un indomabile cavallo di razza democristiano" [An indomitable horse of the type Christian Democrat]. La Stampa. p. 7. Retrieved 9 February 2024.
- ^ Mondo democristiano, mondo cattolico nel secondo Novecento italiano
- ^ "Lo spirito del welfare", Andrea Bassi
- ^ ""Amintore Fanfani" – Biografie". Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
- ^ a b c d "Italy: Moving to the Left". Time. 14 July 1958. Retrieved 2 February 2022.
- ^ (in Italian) Fanfani il "modernizzatore" Archived 18 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Quotidiano della Basilicata, 6 February 2008
- ^ Amintore Fanfani – Dizionario Bibliografico Treccani
- ^ Amintore Fanfani: quaresime e resurrezioni
- ^ L'addio a Fanfani, la Repubblica
- ^ "Illness in the Family", Time, 18 January 1954
- ^ a b "The Little Professor", Time, 25 January 1954.
- ^ Quaderni Svizzeri 1943–1945
- ^ Alcide De Gasperi, britannica.com
- ^ a b c Obituary Amintore Fanfani, The Guardian, 22 November 1999
- ^ «Fondata sul lavoro»: l'articolo 1 e il compromesso alla base della Costituzione italiana, Corriere della Sera
- ^ Elezioni del 1948, Collegio di Siena–Arezzo–Grosseto, Ministero dell'Interno
- ^ Governo De Gasperi V, governo.it
- ^ VII Governo De Gasperi, camera.it
- ^ Governo Pella, governo.it
- ^ a b c d e f g Growth to Limits: The Western European Welfare States Since World War II Volume 4 edited by Peter Flora
- ^ Governo Pella, Governo.it
- ^ Cattolico e risorgimentale, Pella e il caso di Trieste
- ^ Governo Fanfani I, governo.it
- ^ "Roman Circus", Time, 8 February 1954.
- ^ I Governo Fanfani, camera.it
- ^ Il nuovo ministero Scelba ha prestato giuramento al Quirinale, in "La Nuova Stampa", 11 February 1954, page 1
- ^ "Young Initiative", Time, 12 July 1954.
- ^ "Out for the Big Win"[permanent dead link], Time, 26 May 1958.
- ^ Il neo-atlantismo di Fanfani e Mattei
- ^ Fanfani, una leadership spuntata, Il Sole 24 Ore
- ^ "Danger on the Left"[permanent dead link], Time, 9 May 1955.
- ^ Gli Stati Uniti e Fanfani, Università di Roma
- ^ Amintore Fanfani e la crisi del comunismo
- ^ Elezioni del 1958, Ministero dell'Interno
- ^ Ungheria, la rottura tra PCI e PSI
- ^ Governo Fanfani II, senato.it
- ^ Amintore Fanfani e la politica estera italiana
- ^ Il Fanfani II: un governo breve, ma intenso!
- ^ 1958 – 1963, II governo Fanfani
- ^ "Italy's Fanfan", Time, 16 June 1961.
- ^ Governo Segni I, senato.it
- ^ Si sfalda la corrente fanfaniana
- ^ VII Congresso – Firenze, Teatro La Pergola
- ^ Il governo Tambroni, raiscuola.it
- ^ III Legislatura: 12 giugno 1958 - 15 maggio 1963
- ^ Governo Fanfani III, governo.it
- ^ Il centrosinistra – Storia[permanent dead link], Rai Cultura
- ^ "A Sinistra?", Time, 12 January 1962.
- ^ Il feeling di JFK con Fanfani. 'Gli piaceva, ma non in modo incredibile'
- ^ Fanfani a colloquio con Kennedy alla Casa Bianca
- ^ Fanfani a ruota libera: "Kennedy e Roosevelt li ho ispirati io
- ^ Giovagnoli - Tosi, 2010, pages 477–480
- ^ Elezioni del 1963, Ministero dell'Interno
- ^ I Governo Leone, camera.it
- ^ I Governo Moro, governo.it
- ^ Scrutini per l'elezione di Giuseppe Saragat a presidente della Repubblica, camera.it
- ^ L'elezione del Presidente Saragat, quirinale.it
- ^ Quirinale: 1964, via crucis per Leone, ce la fa Saragat
- ^ Governo Moro II, governo.it
- ^ Guarda chi c'è in casa del ministro, la Repubblica
- ^ Governo Moro III, governo.it
- ^ Luca Verzichelli; Maurizio Cotta (July 2012). "Technicians, technical government and non-partisan ministers. The Italian experience" (PDF). CirCap. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 January 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
- ^ Fausto De Luca, Giuramento a Segni dei ventisei ministri, in "Stampa Sera", 23 July 1964, page 1
- ^ La politica araba dell'Italia democristiana
- ^ Fanfani: dalla Costituente all'ONU, una vita per la politica
- ^ Il politico che divorava il potere, la Repubblica
- ^ Elezioni del 1968 – Collegio di Arezzo, Ministero dell'Interno
- ^ I Presidenti del Senato dal 1948, senato.it
- ^ Una crisi improvvida nella vita di Fanfani, Corriere della Sera
- ^ Composizione del Governo Rumor III, senato.it
- ^ Corsa al Quirinale: l'elezione di Giovanni Leone, Panorama
- ^ L'elezione del Presidente Leone, quirinale.it
- ^ Scheda di attività di Amintore Fanfani – V Legislatura, senato.it
- ^ Legge n. 898 del 1 dicembre 1970, Gazzetta Ufficiale
- ^ Referendum divorzio, 45 anni fa il No all'abrogazione della legge
- ^ Divorzio, 40 anni fa la "retorica" di Fanfani per fare abrogare la legge
- ^ Il "no" che cambiò l'Italia: la storia del referendum sul divorzio, Corriere della Sera
- ^ Amintore Fanfani, Il Post
- ISBN 978-3-8329-5609-7
- ^ Benigno Zaccagnini nel futuro della politica, Romano Prodi
- ^ E' morta a 97 anni Maria Pia Fanfani, la Repubblica
- ^ Elezione del Presidente del Senato della Repubblica del 1976, senato.it
- ^ 1976: nasce il governo di solidarietà nazionale
- ^ Il governo della "non sfiducia", nel 1976, Il Post
- ^ Head of Small‐Italian Party Is Asked to Form Cabinet, New York Times
- ^ Berlinguer, teoria e tecnica del compromesso storico
- ^ Discorsi parlamentari di Enrico Berlinguer, Italian Chamber of Deputies, ed. M.L. Righi, 2001, p. 183. (in Italian)
- ^ I Presidenti Leone e Pertini di fronte alla Costituzione e alla crisi del Governo Andreotti IV: fra sequestro Moro, apogeo della solidarietà nazionale ed evoluzione del ruolo presidenziale
- ^ Moro, Aldo (1978). "Il Memoriale di Aldo Moro" (PDF) (in Italian). Retrieved 17 October 2010.
- ^ Aldo Moro: l'ultimo viaggio nel buio, la Repubblica
- ^ "Comunicato concernente la formazione del Governo". Gazzetta Ufficiale, n. 184 (in Italian). 7 July 1981. pp. 4318–4319.
- ^ ll divorzio tra Tesoro e Bankitalia e la lite delle comari, Il Sole 24 Ore
- ^ Governo Fanfani V, governo.it
- ^ L'VIII Legislatura al capolinea: il Governo Fanfani V e la crisi dei partiti nei primi anni Ottanta
- ^ Il Governo Fanfani si è dimesso
- ^ Elezioni del 1983, Ministero dell'Interno
- ^ Craxi, storia di un riformista, Il Tempo
- ^ La biografia del Presidente Cossiga, quirinal.it
- ^ Francesco Cossiga – Dizionario biografico Treccani
- ^ La caduta di Fanfani, la Repubblica
- ^ L'elezione del Presidente Cossiga, quirinale.it
- ^ Quirinale: 1985, ecco il "sardomuto" Cossiga, il picconatore
- ^ Biografia di un "cavallo di razza", la Repubblica
- ^ Craxi e De Mita, quando la staffetta era guerra
- ^ Quando Bettino disertò il passaggio di consegne mandandoci Amato, Il Tempo
- ^ Il senso del "governo neutrale" in un sistema istituzionale bloccato, Il Foglio
- ^ I Governi privi della fiducia iniziale
- ^ Composizione del Governo Goria, senato.it
- ^ "Goria, un addio da protagonista". La Repubblica. 12 March 1988. Retrieved 26 October 2018.
- ^ Governo De Mita, camera.it
- ^ "De Mita: ecco i piani per il mio governo". La Stampa. 14 April 1988. Retrieved 26 October 2018.
- ^ "Misuriamoci sui problemi tutti insieme in Parlamento". La Repubblica. 22 April 1988. Retrieved 26 October 2018.
- ^ "De Mita si è dimesso" (PDF). L'Unità. 20 May 1989. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2016. Retrieved 26 October 2018.
- ^ Composizione della Commissione permanente Affari esteri ed emigrazione, senato.it
- ISBN 978-88-483-0562-4.
- ^ È morto Fanfani. Fu padre del centrosinistra, la Repubblica
- ^ Il centrosinistra
- ^ Estendere l'azione contro il regime autoritario di Fanfani.
- Amintore Fanfani, Encyclopedia of World Biography
- Franzosi, Roberto (1995). The Puzzle of Strikes: Class and State Strategies in Postwar Italy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-45287-8
Further reading
- Giulio Andreotti, De Gasperi e il suo tempo, Milan, Mondadori, 1956.
- Amintore Fanfani, Catholicism, Protestantism, and Capitalism, reprint, Norfolk: IHS Press, 2003.
- ISBN 88-220-6253-1.
- Luciano Radi, La Dc da De Gasperi a Fanfani, Soveria Manelli, Rubbettino, 2005.
External links
- (in Italian) Fondazione Amintore Fanfani Archived 18 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine