Giulio Andreotti
Giulio Andreotti | |||||||||||||||||||||||
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Prime Minister of Italy | |||||||||||||||||||||||
In office 23 July 1989 – 28 June 1992 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
President | Francesco Cossiga Oscar Luigi Scalfaro | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Deputy | Claudio Martelli | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Ciriaco De Mita | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Succeeded by | Giuliano Amato | ||||||||||||||||||||||
In office 30 July 1976 – 5 August 1979 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
President | Giovanni Leone Sandro Pertini | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Deputy | Ugo La Malfa | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Aldo Moro | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Succeeded by | Francesco Cossiga | ||||||||||||||||||||||
In office 18 February 1972 – 8 July 1973 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
President | Giovanni Leone | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Deputy | Mario Tanassi | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Emilio Colombo | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Succeeded by | Mariano Rumor | ||||||||||||||||||||||
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Personal details | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Born | Rome, Kingdom of Italy | 14 January 1919||||||||||||||||||||||
Died | 6 May 2013 Rome, Italy | (aged 94)||||||||||||||||||||||
Political party | Christian Democracy (1942–1994) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Other political affiliations | Italian People's Party (1994–2001) European Democracy (2001–2002) Independent (2002–2008) Union of the Centre (2008–2013)[1] | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Spouse |
Livia Danese (m. 1945) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Children | 4, including Lamberto | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Alma mater | Sapienza University of Rome | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Profession |
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Giulio Andreotti
Beginning as a protégé of
At the height of his statesman career, Andreotti was subjected to criminal prosecutions and charged with colluding with
In addition to his prime ministerial posts, Andreotti served in numerous
Background and attributes
Andreotti, the youngest of three children, was born on 14 January 1919 in Rome.[10] His father, who died when Giulio was two, was a primary school teacher from Segni, a small town in Lazio; after a few years his sister Elena also died. Andreotti attended the Liceo Torquato Tasso in Rome and graduated in law at the University of Rome, with a mark of 110/110.[11]
Andreotti showed some ferocity as a youth, once stubbing out a lit
Andreotti was known for his discretion and retentive memory, and also a sense of humour,[3] often placing things in perspective with a sardonic quip.[13][14][15] Andreotti's personal support within the Christian Democrats was limited, but he could see where the mutual advantage for apparently conflicting interests lay and put himself at the centre of events as mediator.[16] Though not a physically imposing man, Andreotti navigated political waters through conversational skill.[17]
Early political career
Andreotti did not shine at his school and started work in a tax office while studying law at the
In 1938, while researching the papal navy in the Vatican library, he met Alcide De Gasperi, who had been given sanctuary by the Pope. De Gasperi asked Andreotti if he had nothing better to do with his time, inspiring him to become politically active. Speaking of De Gasperi, Andreotti said, "He taught us to search for compromise, to mediate."[18][13]
In July 1939, while Aldo Moro was president of FUCI,[19] Andreotti became director of its magazine Azione Fucina. In 1942, when Moro was enrolled in the Italian Army, Andreotti succeeded him as president of FUCI, a position he held until 1944. During his early years Andreotti suffered violent migraines that forced him to make use of psychoactive drugs sporadically and opiates.[20] During World War II, Andreotti wrote for the Rivista del Lavoro, a fascist propaganda publication, but was also a member of the then-clandestine newspaper Il Popolo.
In July 1943, Andreotti contributed, along with Mario Ferrari Aggradi,
Chamber of Deputies and government
In 1946, Andreotti was elected to the Constituent Assembly of Italy, the provisional parliament which had the task of writing the new Italian constitution. His election was supported by Alcide De Gasperi, founder of the modern DC, of whom Andreotti became a close assistant and advisor; the two politicians became close friends despite their very different characters. However, De Gasperi later described Andreotti as a man "so capable in everything that he could become capable of anything".[15] In 1948, he was elected to the newly formed Chamber of Deputies to represent the constituency of Rome–Viterbo–Latina–Frosinone, which remained his stronghold until the 1990s.
Andreotti began his government career in 1947 when he became
Influence on culture
As the state undersecretary in charge of entertainment in 1949, Andreotti established import limits and screen quotas, and provided loans to Italian production firms. The measures aimed to prevent American productions from dominating the market against
However, Vittorio De Sica's Umberto D., which depicted the lonely life of a retired man, could only strike government officials as a dangerous throwback, due to the opening scene featuring police breaking up a demonstration of old pensioners and the ending scene featuring Umberto's aborted suicide attempt. In a public letter to De Sica, Andreotti castigated him for his "wretched service to his fatherland".[26]
1950s and 1960s
In 1952, ahead of local elections in the municipality of Rome, Andreotti gave proof of his diplomatic skills and gained credibility. Andreotti persuaded De Gasperi not to establish a political alliance with the neo-fascist Italian Social Movement, as Pope Pius XII asked, to prevent a Communist victory.[27]
As Secretary, Andreotti contributed to the re-formation of the
After De Gasperi's resignation and retirement in August 1953, Andreotti remained Secretary of the Council under the short-lived premiership of Giuseppe Pella.[29]
In 1954, Andreotti became
In the early 1960s Andreotti was
Andreotti was also involved in the
In 1968, Andreotti was appointed leader of the parliamentary group of Christian Democracy, a position he held until 1972.
First term as prime minister
In 1972, with Andreotti's first term as prime minister began a period when he was often seen as the
A snap election was called for May 1972, and Christian Democracy, led by Andreotti's ally Arnaldo Forlani, remained stable with around 38% of the votes, as did the Communist Party, with the same 27% as in 1968.[37] Andreotti, supported by secretary Forlani, tried to continue his centrist strategy, but his attempt only lasted a year.[38] The cabinet fell due to the withdrawal of the external support of the Italian Republican Party on the matter of local television reform.[39]
Social policies
Andeotti's approach owed little to a belief that market mechanisms could be left to work without interference. He used price controls on essential foodstuffs and various social reforms to reach an understanding of organised labour. A law of 11 August 1972 extended health insurance to citizens over 65 to receive a social pension. A law of 30 June 1973 extended the cost of living indexation to the social pension.
A devout Catholic, Andreotti was on close terms with six successive pontiffs. He occasionally gave the Vatican unsolicited advice and was often heeded. He updated the relationship of Roman Catholicism to the Italian state in an accord he presented to parliament. It put the country on a more secular basis: abolishing Roman Catholicism as the state religion, making religious instruction in public schools optional, and having the Church accept Italy's divorce law in 1971. Andreotti opposed legal divorce and abortion, but despite his party's opposition, he couldn't avoid the legalization of abortion in May 1978.[40][41][42]
Foreign policy
Andreotti was a strong NATO supporter and was invited to America by the U.S. President Richard Nixon in 1973. A year earlier, he paid an official visit to the Soviet Union, the first one by an Italian Prime Minister in over a decade. During his premiership, Italy opened and developed diplomatic and economic relationships with Arab countries of the Mediterranean Basin, and supported business and trade between Italy and the Soviet Union.[43]
Second term as prime minister
After his resignation, Andreotti served as
Andreotti's third cabinet was called "the government of the "not-no confidence", because it was externally supported by all the political parties in the Parliament, except for the neo-fascist Italian Social Movement.[46]
Legislative action
On 28 January 1977, the
In 1977, Andreotti dealt with an economic crisis by criticising the luxury lifestyle of many Italians and pushing through tough austerity measures. This cabinet fell in January 1978. In March, the crisis was overcome by the intervention of Moro, who proposed a new cabinet, again formed only by DC politicians, but this time with positive confidence votes from the other parties, including the PCI. This cabinet was also chaired by Andreotti and was formed on 16 March 1978.
Kidnapping of Aldo Moro
On the morning of 16 March 1978, the day on which the new Andreotti cabinet was supposed to have undergone a confidence vote in Parliament, the car of Aldo Moro, then-president of Christian Democracy, was assaulted by a group of Red Brigades (Italian: Brigate Rosse, or BR) terrorists in Via Fani in Rome. Firing automatic weapons, the terrorists killed Moro's bodyguards (two Carabinieri in Moro's car and three policemen in the following car) and kidnapped him.
During the kidnapping of Moro, Andreotti refused any negotiation with the terrorists. Moro, during his imprisonment, wrote a statement expressing very harsh judgements against Andreotti.[48]
On 9 May 1978, Moro's body was found in the trunk of a Renault 4 in Via Caetani after 55 days of imprisonment, during which Moro was submitted to a political trial by the so-called "people's court" set up by the Brigate Rosse and the Italian government was asked for an exchange of prisoners. After Moro's death, Andreotti continued as Prime Minister of the "National Solidarity" government with the support of the PCI. Laws approved during his tenure included the Italian National Health Service reform. However, when the PCI asked to participate more directly in the government, Andreotti refused, and the government was dissolved in June 1979. Due also to conflict with Bettino Craxi, secretary of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), the other main party in Italy at the time, Andreotti did not hold any further government position until 1983.
Foreign Affairs Minister
In 1983, Andreotti became
Sigonella Crisis
On 7 October 1985, four men representing the
The Egyptian airliner carrying the hijackers was intercepted by
The escape of Muhammad Zaidan was the result of a deal made with Yassar Arafat.[53]
Policies
As Minister Andreotti encouraged diplomacy between the United States and the Soviet Union and improving Italian links with Arab countries. In this respect he followed a line similar to that of Craxi, with whom he had an otherwise troubled political relationship.[54] The Italian authorities had banned the Lion of the Desert war film about the Second Italo-Senussi War during the Italian colonization of Libya, because, in the words of Andreotti, it was "damaging to the honor of the army".[55]
On 14 April 1986, Andreotti revealed to Libyan Foreign Minister
After Craxi's resignation in 1987, Andreotti remained Minister of Foreign Affairs in the governments of Fanfani and De Mita. In 1989, when De Mita's government fell, Andreotti was appointed as the new prime minister.
Third term as prime minister
On 22 July 1989, Andreotti was sworn in for the third time as prime minister. A turbulent course characterized his government; he decided to stay at the head of government, despite the abandonment of many
In 1990, Andreotti revealed the existence of the
During his premiership, Andreotti clashed many times with President of the Republic Francesco Cossiga.
European Union negotiations
In 1990, Andreotti was involved in getting all parties to agree to a binding timetable for the Maastricht Treaty. The deep Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union favoured by Italy was opposed by Britain's Margaret Thatcher, who wanted a system of competition between currencies. Germany had doubts about committing to the project without requiring economic reforms from Italy, which was seen as having various imbalances. As President of the European Council, Andreotti co-opted Germany by making admittance to the single market automatic once the criteria had been met and committing to a rigorous overhaul of Italian public finances. Critics later questioned Andreotti's understanding of the obligation or whether he had ever intended to fulfil it.[59][60]
Resignation and decline
In 1992, at the end of the legislature, Andreotti resigned from premiership; he was the last Christian Democratic Prime Minister of Italy. The previous year, Cossiga had appointed him
Andreotti and the members of his corrente had adopted a strategy of launching his candidature only after effectively quenching all the others. Allegations against him thwarted the strategy; moreover, the election was influenced by the murder of the
Later political life
Tangentopoli
In 1992, an investigation was started in Milan, dubbed Mani pulite. It uncovered endemic corruption practices at the highest levels, causing many spectacular (and sometimes controversial) arrests and resignations. After the disappointing result in the 1992 general election (29.7%) and two years of mounting scandals (which included several Mafia investigations which notably touched Andreotti), the Christian Democracy party was disbanded in 1994. In the 1990s, most of the politicians prosecuted were acquitted during those investigations, sometimes based on legal formalities or on statutory time limit rules.
After Christian Democracy
Christian Democracy suffered heavy defeats in the provincial and municipal elections, and polling suggested heavy losses in the 1994 Italian general election. In hopes of changing the party's image, the DC's last secretary, Mino Martinazzoli, decided to change the name of the party to the Italian People's Party (PPI). Pier Ferdinando Casini, representing the centre-right faction of the party (previously led by Forlani), decided to launch a new party called Christian Democratic Centre and form an alliance with Silvio Berlusconi's new party, Forza Italia. The left-wing faction either joined the Democratic Party of the Left or stayed within the new PPI, while some right-wingers joined National Alliance.
Andreotti joined the PPI of Mino Martinazzoli. In 2001, after the creation of
In the 2001 general election, the party scored 2.3% on a stand-alone list, winning only two seats in the Senate.[62] In December 2002 it was merged with the Christian Democratic Centre and the United Christian Democrats to form the Union of Christian and Centre Democrats.[63] Andreotti opposed this union and did not join the new party.
In 2006, Andreotti stood for the Presidency of the Italian Senate, obtaining 156 votes against the 165 of Franco Marini, former Labour Minister in the last Andreotti Cabinet. On 21 January 2008, he abstained from a vote in the Senate concerning Minister Massimo D'Alema's report on foreign politics. The abstentions of another life senator, Sergio Pininfarina, and of two Communist senators caused the government to lose the vote. Consequently, Prime Minister Romano Prodi resigned. On previous occasions, Andreotti had always supported Prodi's government with his vote.
During the 16th term of the
Controversies
Trial for Mafia association
Andreotti came under suspicion because his relatively small faction within the Christian Democrats included Sicilian
Labelled by Italian media as the "trial of the century", legal action against Andreotti began on 27 March 1993 in Palermo.[69][70] The prosecution accused the former prime minister of "[making] available to the mafia association named Cosa Nostra for the defence of its interests and attainment of its criminal goals, the influence and power coming from his position as the leader of a political faction".[70] Prosecutors said in return for electoral support of Lima and assassination of Andreotti's enemies, he had agreed to protect the Mafia, which had expected him to fix the Maxi Trial. Andreotti's defence was predicated on character attacks against the prosecution's key witnesses, who were themselves involved with the mafia.[70] This created a "his word against theirs" dynamic between a prominent politician and a handful of criminals.[70] The defence said Andreotti had been a long-time politician of national stature, never beholden to Lima; and that far from providing protection, Andreotti had passed many tough anti-mafia laws when in government during the '80s.[71] According to Andreotti's lawyers, the prosecution case was based on conjecture and inference, without any concrete proof of direct involvement by Andreotti. The defence also contended the prosecution relied on the word of mafia turncoats whose evidence had been contradictory. One such informer testified that Riina and Andreotti had met and exchanged a "kiss of honour".[72][73][74] It emerged that the informer had received a US$300,000 "bonus"[72][74] and committed a number of murders while in the witness protection programme.[75][76] Andreotti dismissed the allegation against him as "lies and slander ... the kiss of Riina, mafia summits ... scenes out of a comic horror film".[72]
Andreotti was eventually acquitted on 23 October 1999;[69] however, together with the greater series of corruption cases of Mani pulite, Andreotti's trials marked the purging and renewal of Italy's political system.[69]
Andreotti's absolution and statute of limitations
Andreotti was tried in Palermo for criminal association until 28 September 1982 and mafia association from 29 September 1982 onwards.
Both the prosecution and the defense appealed to the Court of Cassation, one against the acquittal, and the other to try to obtain an acquittal even on the facts until 1980, instead of a statute of limitations. On 15 October 2004, the Court of Cassation rejected both requests, confirming the statute of limitations for any offence until the spring of 1980 and acquittal for the rest.[80] The grounds for the appeal judgment read (on page 211): "Therefore the appealed sentence ... has recognized the participation in the associative crime not in the reductive terms of mere availability, but in the widest and juridically significant ones of a concrete collaboration." It quotes the opinion of the Court of Appeal and is immediately followed by another sentence of the Court of Cassation: "The reconstruction of single episodes and the evaluation of their consequences were made per comments and interpretations that can also be not shared and against which other ones can be relied on." Suppose the final judgment had arrived by 20 December 2002 (limitation period). In that case, it could have resulted in one of the following two alternative outcomes:
- Andreotti could have been convicted based on article 416 of the Penal Code, i.e. the "simple" association, since the aggravated mafia-type association (416-bis of the Penal Code) was introduced in the Italian Penal Code only in 1982, thanks to the rapporteurs Virginio Rognoni (DC) and Pio La Torre. (PCI).
- The defendant could have been acquitted in full with the confirmation of the first instance judgment.
In 2010, the Court of Cassation ruled that Andreotti had slandered a judge who had given testimony by saying the self-governing body of prosecutors and judges should remove him from his position. Andreotti had said that leaving the man as a judge was "like leaving a lighted fuse in the hand of a child".[81]
Trial for murder
Contemporaneously with his trial for Mafia association, Andreotti was tried in
Mino Pecorelli was killed in Rome's Prati district with four gunshots, on 20 March 1979. The bullets used to kill him were Gevelot brand, a peculiarly rare type of bullet not easily found on gun markets, legal and clandestine alike. The same kind of bullet was later found in the Banda della Magliana's weapon stock, concealed in the Health Ministry's basement. Investigations targeted Massimo Carminati, member of the far-right organization Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari (NAR) and of the Banda della Magliana, the head of Propaganda Due, Licio Gelli, Antonio Viezzer, Cristiano Fioravanti and Valerio Fioravanti.
On 6 April 1993, Mafia
Andreotti was acquitted along with his co-defendants in 1999.[85] Local prosecutors successfully appealed the acquittal, and there was a retrial, which in 2002 convicted Andreotti and sentenced him to 24 years imprisonment. Italians of all political allegiances denounced the conviction.[86][87] Many failed to understand how the court could convict Andreotti of orchestrating the killing, yet acquit his co-accused, who supposedly had carried out his orders by setting up and committing the murder.[88] The Italian supreme court definitively acquitted Andreotti of the murder in 2003.[40][89]
Personal life
On 16 April 1945, Andreotti married Livia Danese (1 June 1921 – 29 July 2015)[90] and had two sons and two daughters, Lamberto (born 6 July 1950), Marilena, Stefano and Serena.
Death and legacy
Andreotti said the opinion of others was of little consequence to him, and "In any case, a few years from now, no one will remember me."[15] He died in Rome on 6 May 2013 after suffering from respiratory problems, at the age of 94.[91] The BBC described him as "one of the most prominent political figures of post-war Italy".[91] The New York Times noted he had "a résumé of signal accomplishments and checkered failings that reads like a history of the republic".[92] The Mayor of Rome, Gianni Alemanno, announced the death, stating that Andreotti was "the most representative politician" Italy had known in its recent history.[93]
Conspiracy theories
Andreotti was accused of participation in a variety of plots. He was alleged to be the éminence grise behind the Propaganda Due Masonic Lodge, a secret association of politicians, civil servants, industrialists, military leaders, heads of the secret service, and prominent journalists conspiring to prevent the Italian Communist Party taking office. This theory posited control of elements ranging from the neo-fascist Valerio Fioravanti to Rome gangsters the Banda della Magliana and to Operation Gladio, a clandestine NATO organisation that was intended to fight a Soviet conquest of Europe through an armed resistance movement.
Andreotti was also accused of having a hand in the death of Aldo Moro and terrorist massacres in a strategy of tension aimed at precipitating a coup,[94] as well as banking scandals and various high-profile assassinations.[95][96][97]
Related perceptions of Andreotti
Fictional characters have been influenced by his image as a
A joke about Andreotti (originally seen in a strip by Stefano Disegni and Massimo Caviglia) had him receiving a phone call from a fellow party member, who pleaded with him to attend judge Giovanni Falcone's funeral. His friend supposedly begged, "The State must give an answer to the Mafia, and you are one of the top authorities in it!" To which a puzzled Andreotti asked, "Which one do you mean?"
In 2008, Andreotti became the subject of
Andreotti was depicted in the 2020 film Rose Island, which tells the story of the Republic of Rose Island, played by Marco Sincini.
Electoral history
Election | House | Constituency | Party | Votes | Result | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1946 | Constituent Assembly | Rome–Viterbo–Latina–Frosinone | DC | 25,261 | Elected | |
1948 | Chamber of Deputies | Rome–Viterbo–Latina–Frosinone | DC | 169,476 | Elected | |
1953 | Chamber of Deputies | Rome–Viterbo–Latina–Frosinone | DC | 145,318 | Elected | |
1958 | Chamber of Deputies | Rome–Viterbo–Latina–Frosinone | DC | 227,007 | Elected | |
1963 | Chamber of Deputies | Rome–Viterbo–Latina–Frosinone | DC | 203,521 | Elected | |
1968 | Chamber of Deputies | Rome–Viterbo–Latina–Frosinone | DC | 252,369 | Elected | |
1972 | Chamber of Deputies | Rome–Viterbo–Latina–Frosinone | DC | 367,235 | Elected | |
1976 | Chamber of Deputies | Rome–Viterbo–Latina–Frosinone | DC | 191,593 | Elected | |
1979 | Chamber of Deputies | Rome–Viterbo–Latina–Frosinone | DC | 302,745 | Elected | |
1983 | Chamber of Deputies | Rome–Viterbo–Latina–Frosinone | DC | 206,944 | Elected | |
1987 | Chamber of Deputies | Rome–Viterbo–Latina–Frosinone | DC | 329,599 | Elected |
See also
References
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Appare credibile quanto affermato a suo tempo dall'ingegnere Francesco Siniscalchi e dai dottori Ermenegildo Benedetti e Giovanni Bricchi circa una possibile donazione di fascicoli che l'ex capo del SIFAR Giovanni Allavena avrebbe effettuato a Gelli al momento di aderire alla loggia P2 nel 1967. Negli anni successivi, inoltre, l'adesione alla loggia di pressoché tutti i principali dirigenti del SID rende più che plausibile un travaso informativo da questi ultimi a Gelli.
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- ^ a b Follain, (2012).
- ^ Stille, Excellent Cadavers, p. 384
- ^ a b Mirabella, Julia Grace (5 January 2012). "Scales of Justice: Assessing Italian Criminal Procedure Through the Amanda Knox Trial". Boston University International Law Journal. 30 (1). footnote 151.
- ^ John Follain, Vendetta: The Mafia, Judge Falcone, and the Hunt for Justice, p.124
- ^ Cowell, Alan (16 January 1993). "Italy Arrests Sicilian Mafia's Top Leader". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
- ^ JSTOR 43486480.
- ^ JSTOR 43039678.
- ISBN 978-1-57181-840-9.
- ^ a b c Stille, Excellent Cadavers, p. 392
- ^ Cowell, Alan (22 May 1994). "Italy Inquiry Asks Andreotti's Trial on Mafia Ties". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
- ^ a b Cowell, Alan (21 April 1993). "Andreotti and Mafia - A Kiss Related". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
- ^ "Esposizione Introduttiva Del Pubblico Ministero nel processo penale n. 3538/94 N.R., instaurato nei confronti di Giulio Andreotti". Gutenberg.us (in Italian). Archived from the original on 28 February 2013. Retrieved 19 February 2014.
- ^ "Delitti 'politici' di mafia". Almanacco dei misteri d' Italia. April 2002. Archived from the original on 21 October 2007.
- ^ "Testo integrale della sentenza della Corte di Cassazione" (PDF) (in Italian). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 December 2009.
- ^ Gian Carlo Caselli; Guido Lo Forte (2018). La verità sul processo Andreotti (in Italian). Roma-Bari: Laterza.
- ^ a b "ArchivioAntimafia - Processo Andreotti". www.archivioantimafia.org (in Italian). Retrieved 3 April 2016.
- ^ "Andreotti, la Cassazione conferma l'appello". Panorama (in Italian). Archived from the original on 3 March 2010. Retrieved 13 November 2008.
- ^ "Andreotti convicted of slandering judge". La Gazzetta del Mezzogiorno (in Italian). 4 May 2010. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
- ^ Clough, Patricia (16 April 1993). "The Andreotti Affair: Supergrasses target Andreotti". The Independent. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
- ^ Bohlen, Celestine (12 April 1996). "Andreotti Is Back in Court, This Time on Murder Charge". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
- ^ Calabrò, Maria Antonietta (15 April 1993). "Intreccio Pecorelli-Moro: già da un anno s'indaga". Corriere della Sera (in Italian). Archived from the original on 12 May 2011. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
- ^ Stanley, Alessandra (25 September 1999). "Ex-Premier Andreotti Acquitted of Mafia Murder Conspiracy". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
- ^ "Court Clears Andreotti of Murder Charge". The New York Times. 31 October 2003. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
- ^ Bruni, Frank (19 November 2002). "Andreotti's Sentence Draws Protests About 'Justice Gone Mad'". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
- ^ "Andreotti fights back on Mafia allegations". The Age. 30 November 2002. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
- ^ "Giulio Andreotti". The Daily Telegraph. 6 May 2013. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
- ^ Rizzo, Manuela (31 July 2015). "Morta Livia Danese la vedova di Giulio Andreotti funerali il 31 luglio a Roma". NewsItaliane.it (in Italian). Archived from the original on 1 August 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
- ^ a b "Giulio Andreotti: Ex-Italian prime minister dies". BBC News. 6 May 2013. Retrieved 6 May 2013.
- ^ Tagliabue, John (6 May 2013). "Giulio Andreotti, Premier of Italy 7 Times, Dies at 94". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 May 2013.
- ^ "Giulio Andreotti, former Italian prime minister, dies aged 94". The Guardian. 6 May 2013. Retrieved 6 May 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-71468-500-7.
- ISBN 978-0-09470-590-6.
- ISBN 978-2-87899-040-9.
- ^ Leney, Fiona (10 October 1993). "The terror trail that won't grow cold: Dark forces bombed Bologna station in 1980, killing 85. At a retrial tomorrow, the victims' relatives may see justice done". The Independent. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
- ISBN 978-0-82641-544-8.
- ^ "Login". The Times. Archived from the original on 10 June 2020. Retrieved 30 October 2008.
- ^ Ide, Wendy (19 March 2009). "Il Divo: the Spectacular Life of Giulio Andreotti". The Times. Archived from the original on 9 May 2009.
Further reading
- Wilsford, David, ed. Political leaders of contemporary Western Europe: a biographical dictionary (Greenwood, 1995) pp 8–16.
- Giuseppe Leone, "Federico II Re di Prussia e Giulio Andreotti – Due modi diversi di concepire la politica", su "Ricorditi di me...", in "Lecco 2000", gennaio 1996. (in Italian)
Primary sources
- Andreotti, Giulio. "Foreign policy in the Italian democracy." Political Science Quarterly 109#3 (1994): 529–537. in JSTOR
External links
- "Les procès Andreotti en Italie" ("The Andreotti trials in Italy") by Philippe Foro, published by University of Toulouse II, Groupe de recherche sur l'histoire immédiate (Study group on contemporary history) (in French)
- Il Divo a Paolo Sorrentino Film
- Appearances on C-SPAN