Californios
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Californios (singular Californio) are
The term Californio (historical, regional Spanish for 'Californian') was originally applied by and to the Spanish-speaking residents of
Later, the primary cultural focus of the Californio population became the
In 2017 there were 11.9 million
Definitions
The term "Californio" has different meanings depending on the author or source. According to the
Authors such as Douglas Monroy,[9] Damian Bacich[10] or Covadonga Lamar Prieto,[11] among others, define Californios as exclusively applying to Alta California residents and their descendants.
Historians Hunt Janin and Ursula Carlson consider a Californio to be any settler who migrated to Alta California and their descendants; and also non-Hispanic immigrants who intermarried with Hispanics and integrated into the Californio culture during the Mexican era, and their descendants.[12]
Calisphere[13] and author Ferol Egan[14] restrict the meaning of Californio to the Californian elite who acquired land during the Spanish and Mexican periods and their descendants.
Leonard Pitt considers a Californio to be any Spanish-speaking person born in California.[15] Writer Jose Antonio Burciaga considers Californios to be any Hispanic living in California, even if they have lived there temporarily. Burciaga, in a 1995 Los Angeles Times article, points to such examples as Cesar Chavez, Luisa Moreno and Bert Corona.[16]
Although sources differ on some elements of classification, they have consensus that Californio includes at a minimum, Hispanic people with origins in Alta California.
History
Early colonization
In 1769,
Late in 1775, Colonel
Anza selected the sites of the
On November 29, 1777,
The
The settlers and escort soldiers who founded the towns of
In Californio society, casta (caste) designations carried more weight than they did in older communities of central Mexico. One similar concept was the gente de razón, a term literally meaning "people of reason". It designated peoples who were culturally Hispanic (that is, they were not living in traditional Native American communities) and had adopted Christianity. This served to distinguish the Mexican Indio settlers and converted Californian Indios from the barbaro (barbarian) Californian Native Americans, who had not converted or become part of the Hispanic towns.[21] California's Governor Pío Pico was criticized for his alleged descent from mestizo and mulato (mulatto) settlers.
Later years of Mexican rule
In the 1830s, the newly formed Mexican government was experiencing difficulties, having gone through several revolts, wars, and internal conflicts and a seemingly never-ending string of Mexican
In 1834, secularization laws
The Californio
Vallejo tried to get the California State Capital moved permanently to Benicia, California on land he sold to the state government in December, 1851. It was named Benicia for the General's wife, Francisca Benicia Carillo de Vallejo. The General intended that the prospective city be named "Francisca" after his wife, but this name was dropped when the city of Yerba Buena changed its name to "San Francisco" on January 30, 1847. Benicia was the third site selected to serve as the California state capital, and its newly constructed city hall was California's capitol from February 11, 1853, to February 25, 1854. Vallejo gave the Rancho Suscol to his oldest daughter, Epifania Guadalupe Vallejo, on April 3, 1851, as a wedding present when she married U.S. Army General John H. Frisbie. It is unknown what he gave as a wedding present when his two daughters Natalia and Jovita married the brothers, Attila Haraszthy and Agoston Haraszthy, on the same day—June 1, 1863.
In some cases particular mission land and livestock were split into parcels and then distributed by drawing lots. In nearly all cases the Indians got very little of the mission land or livestock. Whether any of the proceeds of these sales made their way back to Mexico City is unknown. These lands had been worked by settlers and the much larger settlements of local Native American
U.S. conquest of California
Prior to the Mexican–American War of 1846–1848, the Californios forced the Mexican appointed governor, Manuel Micheltorena, to flee back to Mexico with most of his troops. Pío Pico, a Californio, was the governor of California during the conflict.
The
The only other United States military force in California at the time was a small exploratory expedition led by Lieutenant Colonel John C. Frémont, made up of 30 topographical, surveying, etc. army troops and about 25 men hired as guides and hunters. The Frémont expedition had been dispatched to California, in 1845, from the U.S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers.
Rumors that the Californio government in California was planning to arrest and deport many of the new residents as they had in 1844 led to a degree of uncertainty. On June 14, 1846, thirty-three settlers in Sonoma Valley took preemptive action and captured the small Californio garrison of
Their capture of the small garrison in Sonoma was later called the "Bear Flag Revolt".[24] The Republic's only commander-in-chief was William B. Ide,[25] whose command lasted 25 days. On June 23, 1846, Frémont arrived from the future state of Oregon's border with about 30 soldiers and 30 scouts and hunters and took command of the "Republic" in the name of the United States. Frémont began to recruit a militia from among the new settlers living around Sutter's Fort to join with his forces. Many of these settlers had just arrived over the California Trail and many more would continue to arrive after July 1846 when they got to California. The Donner Party were the last travelers on the trail in late 1846 when they were caught by early snow while they were trying to get across the Sierra Nevada.
Under orders from
On July 11, the Royal Navy sloop HMS Juno entered San Francisco Bay, causing Montgomery to man his defenses. The large British ship, 2,600 tons with a crew of 600, man-of-war HMS Collingwood, flagship under Sir George S. Seymour, also arrived at about this time outside Monterey Harbor. Both British ships observed, but did not enter the conflict.[26]
Shortly after July 9, when it became clear the US Navy was taking action, the short-lived
The first job given to the California Battalion and was to assist in the capture of
In
It would take about four months of intermittent sparring before Gillespie could again raise the same American flag originally flown over Los Angeles. Los Angeles was retaken without a fight on January 10, 1847.[29] Following their defeat at the Battle of La Mesa, the Californio government signed the Treaty of Cahuenga, which ended the war in California on January 13, 1847. The main Californio military force, known as the Californio lancers, was disbanded. On January 16, 1847, Commodore Stockton appointed Frémont military governor of U.S. territorial California.
Some Californios fought on both sides of the conflict (U.S. and Mexico). The battlefield memorials attest to the heroic fight and loss on both sides.
Californio battles
Most towns in California surrendered without a shot being fired on either side. What little fighting that did occur usually involved small groups of disaffected Californios and small groups of soldiers, marines or militia.
- 1846
- Battle of Dominguez Rancho, October 9, 1846. José Antonio Carrillo, near Los Angeles, leads Californio forces against 350 marines and sailors who retreated.
- Pio Pico. Californio casualties are unknown. By the time reinforcements came from U.S. forces in San Diego, the Californio forces were already gone.[29]
- 1847
- January 5, 1847. Frémont near the San Buenaventura Mission, with about 400 men and six field pieces, disperses a force of 60–70 Californio Lancers.[29]
- Battle of Rio San Gabriel, January 8, 1847. Stephen Kearny and Stockton's combined force of about 600 men (about a battalionequivalent) defeat the roughly 160-man Californio Lancer force near Los Angeles. Casualties are about one man on each side.
- Battle of La Mesa, January 9, 1847. Kearny and Robert F. Stockton's combined US forces defeat the Californios in the final battle in California, at present day Montebello, east of Los Angeles. Casualties are about one man on each side.
- January 5, 1847. Frémont near the
In late December, 1846, while Fremont was in Santa Barbara,
On January 11, 1847, General Jose Maria Flores turned over his command to Andrés Pico and fled. On January 12, Bernarda went alone to Pico's camp and told him of the peace agreement she and Fremont had forged. Fremont and two of Pico's officers agreed to the terms for a surrender, and Jose Antonio Carrillo penned Articles of Capitulation in both English and Spanish.[33] The first seven articles were almost entirely from Ruiz's suggestions. The story of Bernarda Ruiz is based largely on two short paragraphs and a footnote in Fremont's memoirs, first published in 1887.[34] Many aspects of the story cannot be verified in primary source materials.[35]
On January 13, at a deserted rancho at the north end of Cahuenga Pass (modern-day North Hollywood), John Fremont, Andres Pico and six others signed the Articles of Capitulation, which became known as the Treaty of Cahuenga. Fighting ceased, thus ending the war in California.[36][37]
Californios after U.S. annexation
This article needs additional citations for verification. (April 2012) |
In 1848, Congress set up a Board of Land Commissioners to determine the validity of Mexican land grants in California. California Senator William M. Gwin presented a bill that, when approved by the Senate and the House on March 3, 1851, became the California Land Act of 1851.[38] It stated that unless grantees presented evidence supporting their title within two years, the property would automatically pass back into the public domain.[39] Rancho owners cited the articles VIII and X of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, wherein it guaranteed full protection of all property rights for Mexican citizens—with an unspecified time limit.[40][41]
Many ranch owners with their thousands of acres and large herds of cattle, sheep and horses went on to live prosperous lives under U.S. rule. Former commander of the California Lancers Andrés Pico became a U.S. citizen after his return to California and acquired the Rancho Ex-Mission San Fernando ranch which makes up large part of what is present day Los Angeles. He went on to become a California State Assemblyman and later a California State Senator. His brother former governor of Alta California (under Mexican rule) Pío Pico also became a U.S. citizen and a prominent ranch owner/businessman in California after the war.
Many others were not so fortunate as droughts decimated their herds in the early 1860s and they could not pay back the high cost mortgages (poorly understood by the mostly illiterate ranchers) they had taken out to improve their lifestyle and subsequently lost much or all of their property when they could not be repaid.
Californios did not disappear. Some people in the area still have strong identities as Californios. Thousands of people who are descended from the Californios have well-documented genealogies of their families.
The developing agricultural economy of California allowed many Californios to continue living in
.From the 1850s until the 1960s, the Hispanics (of Spanish, Mexican and regional Native American origins) lived in relative autonomy. They practiced a degree of social
Alexander V. King has estimated that there were between 300,000 and 500,000 descendants of Californios in 2004.[1]
California Gold Rush
In 1848, gold is discovered at Sutter's Mill, near Coloma, California.[43] This discovery was made only nine days before the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, which turned over California to the United States as a result of the Mexican–American War.[44]
From the end of 1849 to the end of 1852, the population in California increased from 107,000 to 264,000 due to the
Working conditions
Many Latino miners were experienced due to learning a "dry-digging" technique in the Mexican mining state of Sonora.[47] Their early success drew praise and respect from Euro-American miners, they eventually became jealous and used threats and violence to force Mexican workers out of their plots and into less lucrative ones.[47] In addition to these informal forms of discrimination, Anglo miners also worked to establish Jim Crow-like laws to prevent Latinos from mining altogether.[47] In 1851, mob violence as well as the Foreign Miners' Tax discussed below forced between five thousand and fifteen thousand foreigners out of work in just a few months.[43]
According to Antonio F. Coronel's accounts, there was systematic race-influenced violence conducted by Americans to force out Californios and other Latinos. One account tells of a Frenchman and "un español" being lynched for supposed theft in 1848. Despite offers by Californios to replace the reported amount of gold stolen, they were still hanged.[43] In addition, later in the Gold Rush, Coronel and his group found a rich vein of gold on the American River. When Euro-Americans caught wind of this, the invaded the claim armed and insisted it was their plot, forcing out Colonel and ending his mining career.[43] Accounts like these show the harsh and violent living and working conditions that Californios were faced with during the Gold Rush. Discriminatory and racist treatment and laws as well as being so vastly outnumbered forced them out of their native lands despite assurances by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that they could remain.
Foreign Miners' Tax
In response to the Mexican resistance to the American population, white miners called for something to be done about the "Sonoran" miner "problem". In response, in 1850, the Californian government introduced a tax on foreign miners who were working plots, called the Foreign Miners' Tax Law. The claimed purpose of the tax was to fund the government's efforts to protect the foreign workers. There are conflicting reports on the amount of the tax ranging from $20 to $30 per month.[43]
This extremely high tax forced all but the most successful Latinos to stop mining as they were unable to obtain enough gold to make mining profitable. This left only the most successful of the Mexican prospectors, who ironically were the ones who drew the most ire from the Euro-American miners initially. By 1851, when the tax law was repealed, approximately two-thirds of the Latinos and Californios that had been living and working in mining areas had been driven out by the tax.[48][unreliable source?] After repealing the $20 or $30 per month tax, the California legislature instituted a much more reasonable $3 per month tax in 1852.[47]
Californio society and customs
Government
In the Spanish period,
After 1821 and Mexican independence, there were approximately 40
The other center of Spanish power in Alta California was the
The instability of the Mexican government (especially in its early years), Alta California's geographic isolation, the growing ability of Alta California's residents, including immigrants, to gain success; and an increase in the Californio population created a schism with the national government. As Spanish and Mexican period immigrants were surpassed in number by residents who had little affinity with the national government, the political and social environment enabled disagreement with the central government to form. Governors had little material support from the distant capital, Mexico City, and generally had to deal with Alta Californians themselves. Mexico-born governor Manuel Victoria was forced to flee in 1831, after losing a fight against a local uprising at the Battle of Cahuenga Pass.
As Californios increasingly assumed positions of power in the Alta California government (including that of governor), rivalries emerged between northern and southern regions. Several times, Californio leaders attempted to break away from Mexico, most notably
Foreigners
The independent minded Californios were also influenced by increasing numbers of immigrant foreigners (mostly English and French, English-speaking Americans being grouped with the "English", or Anglos) who entered the district. They assimilated with the Californios, becoming Mexican citizens and gaining land either independently granted to them or through marriage to Californio women. They also began to be active in local politics.[52]
For example, American Abel Stearns was an ally of the Californio José Antonio Carrillo in the 1831 Victoria incident, yet sided with the southern Californians against the Californio would-be governor Alvarado in 1836. Alvarado recruited a company of riflemen from Tennessee, many of them former trappers who had settled in the Monterey Bay area. The company was led by another American, Isaac Graham. When the Americans refused to fight against fellow Americans, Alvarado was forced to negotiate a settlement.
Ethnicity
Californios included the descendants of agricultural settlers and retired escort soldiers deployed from what is modern-day Mexico. Most were of mixed ethnicities, usually Mestizo (Spanish and Native American) or mixed African and Amerindian backgrounds.
Despite the depictions of popular American 20th-century TV shows such as
According to mission records (marriage, baptisms, and burials) and Presidio roster listings, several "leather-jacket" soldiers (soldados de cuero), operating as escorts, mission guards, and other military duty personnel were described as europeo (i.e., born in Europe), while most civilian settlers were classified as of mixed origins (coyote, mulatto, etc.). The current term mestizo was rarely used in mission records: more common terms were indio, europeo, mulato, coyote, castizo, and other caste terms.
An example of European-born soldiers are the twenty-five from Lieutenant
Women in Californio society
The social life of Californio society was extremely important in both politics and business, and women played an important part in these interactions. They helped facilitate such interactions for their husbands, and therefore themselves, in order to advance in the social and political power in Californio society. Men sought women with high social skills, as they understood the power women could have on family and social dealings.[56]
In movies and television accounts of this period have portrayed women as romanticized, characterized by their beauty and fun-loving nature. They have also been shown as raised to be very sheltered and protected.[57]
As women played a key role in the development of Alta California, they continued in this role as it changed from a Mexican territory to a United States possession. As foreign, non-Spanish speaking men moved into California, those who wished to join the upper echelons of the established social hierarchy began to use marriage with women of established Californio families as a way to join the elite.
Family and education
The family was characteristically patriarchal; sons were expected to defer to fathers for all their lives.[52] Women had full rights of property ownership and control unless she was married or had a living father; the males had almost complete control of all family members.[50] Individual families of means paid to have their children educated, with by priests or private tutors. Few early immigrants knew how to read or write, so only a few hundred inhabitants could.[58]
Settlement
The Spanish colonial government, and later, Mexican officials encouraged through recruitment civilians from the northern and western provinces of Mexico such as Sonora. This was not well received by Californios, and was one of the factors leading to revolt against Mexican rule. Sonorans came to California despite the area's isolation and the lack of central government support. Many of the soldiers' wives considered California to be a cultural wasteland and a hardship assignment.
An incentive for the soldiers that remained in California after service was the opportunity to receive a land grant that probably was not possible elsewhere. This made most of California's early settlers military retirees with a few civilian settlers from Mexico. Since it was a frontier society, the initial rancho housing was characterized as rude and crude—little more than mud huts with thatched roofs. As the rancho owners prospered these residences could be upgraded to more substantial adobe structures with tiled roofs. Some buildings took advantage of local tar pits (La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles) in an attempt to waterproof roofs. Restorations of these today often suffer from a perception that results in a grander representation than if they had been constructed during the Californio period.[clarification needed][59] The Californio population was 10,000 in 1845, estimated.[1]
Ranchos
In practice nearly all mission property and livestock became about 455 large Ranchos of California granted by the Californio authorities. The Californio rancho owners claimed about 8,600,000 acres (35,000 km2) averaging about 18,900 acres (76 km2) each. This land was nearly all originally mission land within about 30 miles (48 km) of the coast. The Mexican-era land grants by law were provisional for five years in order for the terms of the law to reasonably be fulfilled. The boundaries of these ranchos were not established as they came to be in later times predominately based on what could be understood as figurative boundaries. They were based on just where another granted owner considered the end of their land, lands or vegetation landmarks.[60] Conflict was bound to occur when these land grants were reviewed under United States control. Title to some grants under United States control were rejected[61] based on questionable documents especially when with predated documents, that could have been created post-United States occupancy in January 1847.[59][62]
After agriculture, cattle, sheep and horses were established by the
Before Mexican independence in 1821, 20 "Spanish" land grants had been issued (at little or no cost) in all of Alta California;[52] many to "a few friends and family of the Alta California governors". The 1824 Mexican General Colonization Law established rules for petitioning for land grants in California; and by 1828, the rules for establishing land grants were codified in the Mexican Reglamento (Regulation). The Acts sought to break the monopoly of the Catholic Franciscan missions and possibly entice increased Mexican settlement.
When the missions were secularized in 1834–1836 mission property and livestock were supposed to be mostly allocated to the Mission Indians.[59] Historical research shows that the majority of rancho grants were given to retired non-commissioned soldiers. The largest grants to Nieto, Sepúlveda, Domínguez, Yorba, Ávila, Grijalva, and other founding families were examples of this practice.[52]
Many of the foreign residents also became rancho grantees. Some were "Californios by marriage" like Stearns (who was naturalized in Mexico before moving north) and the Englishman William Hartnell. Others married Californios but never became Mexican citizens. Rancho ownership was possible for these men because, under Spanish/Mexican law, married women could independently hold title to property. In the Santa Cruz area, three Californio daughters of the inválido José Joaquín Castro (1768–1838) married foreigners yet still received grants to Rancho Soquel, Rancho San Agustin and Rancho Refugio.
Taxation
Since the government depended on import
The mandatory Diezmo ended with the secularization of the missions, greatly reducing rancho taxes until the U.S. takeover. Today's state property tax system makes large self-supporting cattle ranches uneconomical in most cases.
Horses in Californio culture
Horses were plentiful and often left, after being broken in, to wander around with a rope around their necks for easy capture. It was not unusual for a rider to use one horse until it was exhausted, before switching its bridle to another horse—letting the first horse free to wander. Horse ownership for all except a few exceptional animals were almost community property. Horses were so common and of so little use that they were often destroyed to keep them from eating the grass needed by the cattle. California Indians later developed a taste for horse flesh as food and helped keep the number of horses under control.[59] An unusual use for horses was found in shucking wheat or barley. The wheat and its stems were cut from the gain fields by Indians bearing sickles. The grain with its stems still attached was transported to the harvesting area by solid wheeled ox-cart[63] (nearly the only wheeled transport in California) and put into a circular packed earth corral. A herd of horses was then driven into the same corral or "threshing field". By keeping the horses moving around the corral their hoofs would, in time, separate the wheat or barley from the chaff. Later the horses would be allowed to escape and the wheat and chaff were collected and then separated by tossing it into the air on a windy day so as to let the wind carry the chaff away. Presumably the wheat was washed before use to remove some of the dirt.[64]
Indigenous Californian workforce
For these very few
Traditional food and materials
Beef was a common constituent of most Californio meals and since it couldn't be kept long in the days before refrigeration, beef was often slaughtered to get a few steaks or cuts of meat. The property and yards around the ranchos were marked by the large number of dead cow heads, horns or other animal parts. Cow hides were kept later for trading purposes with Yankee or British traders who started showing up once or twice a year after 1825.[67] Beef, wheat bread products, corn, several types of beans, peas and several types of squash were common meal items with wine and olive oil used when they could be found.
The
Leather, one of the most common materials available, was used for many products, including saddles, chaps, whips, window and door coverings,
Trade
From about 1769 to 1824 California averaged about 2.5 ships per year with 13 years showing no ships coming to California. These ships brought a few new settlers and supplies for the pueblos and Missions. Under the Spanish colonial government rules, trade was actively discouraged with non-Spanish ships. The few non-Native American people living in California had almost nothing to trade—the missions and pueblos were subsidized by the Spanish government. The occasional Spanish ships that did show up were usually requested by Californios and had Royal permission to go to California—bureaucracy in action. Prior to 1824, when the newly independent Mexico liberalized the trade rules[52] and allowed trade with non-Mexican ships, the occasional trading ship or U.S. whaler that put into a California port to trade, get fresh water, replenish their firewood and obtain fresh meat and vegetables became more common. The average number of ships from 1825 to 1845 jumped to twenty-five ships per year versus the 2.5 ships per year common for the prior fifty years.[66]
The
California was not alone in using the import duty to pay for its government as the
Californios in literature
- A portrayal of Californio culture is depicted in the novel Ramona (1884), written by Helen Hunt Jackson.
- The fictional character of Zorro has become the most identifiable Californio due to novels, short stories, motion pictures and the 1950s television series. The historical facts of the era are sometimes lost in the story-telling.
- Richard Henry Dana Jr., recounted aspects of Californio culture which he saw during his 1834 visit as a sailor in Two Years Before the Mast.
- Joseph Chapman, a land realtor noted as the first Yankee to reside in the old Pueblo de Los Angeles in 1831, described Southern California as a paradise yet to be developed. He mentions a civilization of Spanish-speaking colonists, "Californios", who thrived in the pueblos, the missions, and ranchos.[citation needed]
- Maria Amparo Ruiz de Burton, The Squatter and the Don, a novel set in 1880s California, depicts a very wealthy Californio family's legal struggles with immigrant squatters on their land.Mariano G. Vallejo, a friend of the author. The novel depicts the legal process by which Californios were often "relieved" of their land. This process was long (most Californios spent up to 15 years defending their grants before the courts), and the legal fees were enough to make many Californios landless. Californios resented having to pay land taxes to United States officials, because the principle of paying taxes for land ownership did not exist in Mexican law. In some cases Californios had little available capital, because their economy had operated on a barter system; they often lost land because of the inability to pay the taxes.[70]They could not compete economically with the European and Anglo-American immigrants who arrived in the region with large amounts of cash.
- Alejandro Murguía (1949-) speaks of growing up in the 20th century playing in the ruins of Missions and his family history as Californios in The medicine of memory : a Mexica clan in California.
- John Saul's 1985 horror novel Brain Child features a backstory heavily involving Californio settlers and their descendents.
Notable Californios
Prominent families
- Ávila family of California
- Berryessa family of California
- Careaga family of California
- Carrillo family of California
- Estudillo family of California
- Guerra family of California
- Lugo family of California
- Pico family of California
- Sepúlveda family of California
Law and politics
- Juan Bautista Alvarado (1809–1882), Californian independence leader and Mexican Governor of the Californias
- Romualdo Pacheco (1831-1899), only Hispanic to serve as Governor of California since the U.S. conquest
- Carlos Antonio Carrillo (1783-1852), Californio representative to the Congress of the Union
- Francisco Pérez Pacheco (1790-1880), member of the Provincial Deputation of Alta California
- Francisco de Haro (1792-1849), first Mayor of San Francisco
- Salvio Pacheco (1793-1876), Mayor of San Jose and founder of Concord
- Californian Constitution
- Antonio Suñol (1797-1865), Mayor of San Jose and namesake of Sunol,
- José María Alviso (1798-1853), Mayor of San Jose and founder of Milpitas
- José Joaquín Estudillo (1800-1852), Mayor of San Francisco and founder of San Leandro
- Yorba Linda
- Pico Rivera
- San Diego County Assessor
- CSU Dominguez Hills and Rancho Dominguez
- José de Jesús Noé (1805-1862), last Mexican Mayor of San Francisco
- Californian Constitution
- Californian Constitution
- Ygnacio del Valle (1808-1880), Mayor of Los Angeles and California State Assemblyman
- Californian Constitution and California State Assemblyman
- Cristóbal Aguilar (1816–1866), three-term Mayor of Los Angeles
- Antonio F. Coronel (1817-1894), California State Treasurer, Mayor of Los Angeles, and first Los Angeles County Assessor
- Californian Constitution
- Calle Olvera
- California State Senator
- José Guadalupe Estudillo (1838-1917), California State Treasurer
- Juan José Carrillo (1842-1916), Mayor of Santa Monica and the last Los Angeles City Marshal
- Ygnacio Sepúlveda (1842–1916), first judge of the Los Angeles County Superior Court
- UCLA
- Lucretia del Valle Grady (1892–1972), Vice-Chair of the Democratic National Committee and women's suffrage activist
- Sam Liccardo (born 1970), Mayor of San Jose
- Gil Cisneros (born 1971),[71] U.S. Congressman and Under Secretary of Defense
Notable women
- Mission San Gabriel
- María Ygnacia López de Carrillo (1793-1849), founder of Santa Rosa
- Redwood City
- Juana Briones de Miranda (c.1802–1889), "Founding Mother of San Francisco" and early developer of Palo Alto
- Bernarda Ruiz de Rodríguez (1809-1880), peace broker of the Treaty of Cahuenga
- Angustias de la Guerra (1815-1890), women's rights activist and one of the first writers of Californian history
- Lachryma Montis estate and namesake of Benicia
- Arcadia Bandini de Stearns Baker (1827-1912), founder of Santa Monica
- Epifania de Guadalupe Vallejo (1835-1905), earliest known photographer on the West Coast of the present-day United States
- Ysabel del Valle (1837–1905), administrator of Rancho Camulos
- Modesta Ávila (1867-1891), protester and folk hero
Artists, actors, and writers
- Governor of Alta California
- Agustín V. Zamorano (1798-1842), first publisher in California
- Esteban Munrás (1798–1850), painter and frescoist
- Leo Carrillo (1880–1961), Hollywood move actor and conservationist
- Myrtle Gonzalez (1891-1918), silent-era movie actress
- The Lambs Club
- Alejandro Murguía (born 1949), author and poet laureate
Military figures
- Presidio of Monterey
- José María Estudillo (unknown-1830), Commandant of the Presidio of San Diego
- Andrés Pico (1810-1876), leader of the Californio forces during the American conquest of California
Religious figures
- Juan Crespí (1721–1782), Franciscan missionary and Padre-Presidente of the Californian Missions
- Fermín de Lasuén (1736-1803), founder of nine of the twenty-one Spanish missions in California
- Apolinaria Lorenzana (1793-1884), religious leader
- José González Rubio (1804–1875), last Apostolic Administrator of the Californias
See also
Culture, race and ethnicity
- Hispanics
- Neomexicanos
- Tejanos
- Chicanos
- Mexican Americans
- Spanish Americans
- Isleños
- Floridanos
History and government
- History of California
- History of California before 1900
- Provincias Internas
- California Republic
- Conquest of California
References
- ^ a b c d King, Alexander V. (January 2004). "Californio Families, A Brief Overview". San Francisco Genealogy. Society of Hispanic Historical & Ancestral Research.
- ^ as quoted in Clark, Donald T. (2008). Santa Cruz County Place Names p.442, Scotts Valley, California, Kestrel Press.
- ^ Hutchinson, C. A. (1969). Frontier settlement in Mexican California: The Híjar-Padrés colony and its origins, 1769–1835. New Haven: Yale University Press.
- ^ Griswold del Castillo, Richard. "Californios" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 1, pp. 514-15. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.
- ^ "The Demographic Statistical Atlas of the United States – Statistical Atlas". statisticalatlas.com.
- ^ "Latino Caucaus – Statistical Picture of Latinos in California – 2017" (PDF).
- ^ "RAE: Californio". RAE.. Accessed on October 24, 2021
- ^ "Merriam Webster: Californio". Merriam Webster.Accessed on October 24, 2021.
- JSTOR 25161666.
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Bibliography
- Beebe, Rose Marie and Robert M. Senkewicz (2001). Lands of Promise and Despair: Chronicles of Early California, 1535–1846. Berkeley: Heyday Books. ISBN 978-1-890771-48-5.
- Beebe, Rose Marie and Robert M. Senkewicz (2006). Testimonios: Early California through the Eyes of Women, 1815–1848. Berkeley: Heyday Books, The Bancroft Library and the University of California.
- Bouvier, Virginia Marie (2001). Women and the Conquest of California, 1542–1840: Codes of Silence. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-2446-4
- Casas, María Raquél (2007). Married to a Daughter of the Land: Spanish-Mexican Women and Interethnic Marriage in California, 1820–1880. Reno: University of Nevada Press. ISBN 978-0-87417-697-1
- Chávez-García, Miroslava (2004). Negotiating Conquest: Gender and Power in California, 1770s to 1880s. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-2378-8
- Gostin, Ted (2001). Southern California Vital Records, Volume 1: Los Angeles County 1850–1859. Los Angeles: Generations Press. ISBN 978-0-9707988-0-0
- Haas, Lisbeth (1995). Conquests and Historical Identities in California, 1769–1936, Berkeley: University of California. ISBN 978-0-520-08380-6
- Heidenreich, Linda (2007). "This Land was Mexican Once": Histories of Resistance from Northern California. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71634-6
- Hugues, Charles (1975). "The decline of the Californios: The Case of San Diego, 1846–1856", The Journal of San Diego History, Summer 1975, Volume 21, Number 3
- Hurtado, Albert L. (1999). Intimate Frontiers : Sex, Gender, and Culture in Old California. Albuquerque : University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-1954-8
- Mason, William Marvin (1998). The Census of 1790: A Demographic History of California, Menlo Park, California: Ballena Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98083-6
- Monroy, Douglas. Thrown Among Strangers: The Making of Mexican Culture in Frontier California. University of California Press 1993. ISBN 978-0-520-08275-5
- Osio, Antonio Maria; Rose Marie Beebe and Robert M. Senkewicz (1996) The History of Alta California : A Memoir of Mexican California. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-14974-1
- PBS (2006). The Gold Rush. PBS.
- Pitt, Leonard and Ramón A. Guttiérrez (1998). Decline of the Californios: A Social History of the Spanish-Speaking Californians, 1846–1890 (New edition), Berkeley: ISBN 978-0-520-21958-8
- Ruiz de Burton, María Amparo; Rosaura Sánchez and Beatrice Pita (2001). Conflicts of Interest: The Letters of María Amparo Ruiz de Burton. Houston: Atre Publico Press. ISBN 978-1-55885-328-7
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- The editors of Time-Life Books (1976). The Spanish West. New York: Time-Life Books.
- Thomas, Adrianna (2009). Latino and Asian Americans in the California Gold Rush. Columbia University Academic Commons.
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External links
Archival collections
- Guide to the Amador, Yorba, López, and Cota families correspondence. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.
- Guide to the Orange County Californio Families Portrait Photograph Album. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.
Other
- Californios, a People and a Culture, a personal website
- Pitti, José; Antonia Castaneda and Carlos Cortes (1988). "A History of Mexican Americans in California" Archived 2006-10-11 at the Wayback Machine, in Five Views: An Ethnic Historic Site Survey for California. California Department of Parks and Recreation, Office of Historic Preservation.
- A Continent Divided: The U.S.-Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, University of Texas at Arlington