Durand Line
Durand Line | |
---|---|
Characteristics | |
Entities | Afghanistan Pakistan |
Length | 2,611 km (1,622 mi) |
History | |
Established | 12 November 1893 Signing of the Durand Line Agreement at the end of the first phase of the Second Anglo-Afghan War |
Current shape | 8 August 1919 Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 ratified at the end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War |
Treaties | Treaty of Gandamak, Durand Line Agreement, Treaty of Rawalpindi |
The Durand Line (
The Durand Line was established in 1893 as the international border between the
The single-page Agreement, dated 12 November 1893, contains seven short articles, including a commitment not to exercise interference beyond the Durand Line.[2] A joint British-Afghan demarcation survey took place starting from 1894, covering some 800 miles (1,300 km) of the border.[3][4] Established towards the close of the British–Russian "Great Game" rivalry, the resulting line established Afghanistan as a buffer zone between British and Russian interests in the region.[5] The line, as slightly modified by the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919, was inherited by Pakistan in 1947, following its independence.
The Durand line cuts through to demarcate
Although the Durand Line is internationally recognized as the western border of Pakistan, it remains largely unrecognized in Afghanistan.
Historical background
This section needs additional citations for verification. (November 2017) |
The area through which the Durand Line runs has been inhabited by the
In 1839, during the
In 1893, Mortimer Durand was dispatched to
From the British side, the camp was attended by Mortimer Durand and
The resulting agreement or treaty led to the creation of a new province called the
Demarcation surveys on the Durand Line
The initial and primary demarcation, a joint Afghan-British survey and mapping effort, covered 1,300 kilometres (800 mi) and took place from 1894 to 1896. Detailed topographic maps locating hundreds of boundary demarcation pillars were soon published and are available in the Survey of India collection at the British Library.[26]
The complete 20-page text of these detailed joint Afghan-British demarcation surveys is available in several sources.[27][28]
In 1896, the long stretch from the Kabul River to China, including the Wakhan Corridor, was declared demarcated by virtue of its continuous, distinct watershed ridgeline, leaving only the section near the Khyber Pass to be finally demarcated in the treaty of 22 November 1921, signed by Mahmud Tarzi, "Chief of the Afghan Government for the conclusion of the treaty" and "Henry R. C. Dobbs, Envoy Extraordinary and Chief of the British Mission to Kabul."[27] A very short adjustment to the demarcation was made at
Cultural impact of the Durand Line
Shortly after demarcation of the Durand Line, the British began connecting the region on their side of the Durand Line to the
British Indian Empire declares war on Afghanistan
The Durand Line triggered a long-running
The Afghan Government accepts the Indo–Afghan frontier accepted by the late Amir
— Article V of the August 8, 1919 Treaty of Rawalpindi
The two high contracting parties mutually accept the Indo-Afghan frontier as accepted by the Afghan Government under Article V of the Treaty concluded on August 8, 1919
— Article II of the November 22, 1921 finalising of the Treaty of Rawalpindi
Territorial dispute between Afghanistan and Pakistan
Pakistan inherited the 1893 agreement and the subsequent 1919 Treaty of Rawalpindi after the partition from the British India in 1947. There has never been a formal agreement or ratification between Islamabad and Kabul.[33] Pakistan believes, and international convention under uti possidetis juris supports, the position that it should not require an agreement to set the boundary;[31] courts in several countries around the world and the Vienna Convention have universally upheld via uti possidetis juris that binding bilateral agreements are "passed down" to successor states.[34] Thus, a unilateral declaration by one party has no effect; boundary changes must be made bilaterally.[35]
At the time of independence, the indigenous Pashtun people[21] living on the border with Afghanistan were given only the choice of becoming a part either of India or Pakistan.[6] Further, by the time of the Indian independence movement, prominent Pashtun nationalists such as Abdul Ghaffar Khan and his Khudai Khidmatgar movement advocated a united India, and not a united Afghanistan – highlighting the extent to which infrastructure and instability together began to erode Pashtun self-identification with Afghanistan.[36] By the time of independence, popular opinion amongst Pashtuns was split amongst the majority who wished to join the newly formed state of Pakistan, and the minority who wished to become a part of the Dominion of India. When the idea of a united India failed, Ghaffar Khan pledged allegiance to Pakistan and started campaigning for the autonomy of Pakistan's Pashtuns.[36]
On 26 July 1949, when
Philip Noel-Baker, June 30, 1950
At the 1956 SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) Ministerial Council Meeting held at Karachi, capital of Pakistan at the time, it was stated:
The members of the Council declared that their governments recognised that the sovereignty of Pakistan extends up to the Durand Line, the international boundary between Pakistan and Afghanistan, and it was consequently affirmed that the Treaty area referred to in Articles IV and VIII of the Treaty includes the area up to that Line.[39]
— SEATO, March 8, 1956
In 1976, the then president of Afghanistan,
Geography
The border is south of the Hindu Kush, while its eastern end by China is in the Karakoram range. These are regions of extreme high elevation, hence much of the Durand Line is bounded by mountains. The Spīn Ghar (White Mountains) range is roughly in the middle of the Line. The western part of the Line meanwhile is lower and sparse, consisting of the Registan Desert.
The highest peak, Noshaq, is located along the border between two countries, while some of the highest peaks in the world, including K2, are a short distance to the east of the Line's end on the Pakistani side.
The
Border regions
The border is 2,611 km (1,622 mi) long. Twelve Afghan provinces are located along the border: Nimroz, Helmand, Kandahar, Zabul, Paktika, Khost, Paktia, Logar, Nangarhar, Kunar, Nuristan and Badakhshan.
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Balochistan, and the Gilgit-Baltistan region of Pakistan share a border with the Durand Line.
Border crossings and economy
The two countries are major trade partners, and therefore the various border crossings are economically important for the wider region,[41] particularly the Torkham and Khyber Pass that is also the main land connection between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.
Contemporary era
During
After the collapse of the pro-Soviet Afghan government in 1992, Pakistan, despite Article 2 of the Durand Line Agreement which states "The Government of India will at no time exercise interference in the territories lying beyond this line on the side of Afghanistan", attempted to create a
A line of hatred that raised a wall between the two brothers.
— Hamid Karzai
The
Recurrent claims that (the) Durand Treaty expired in 1993 are unfounded. Cartographic depictions of boundary conflict with each other, but Treaty depictions are clear.[33]
— A spokesperson for U.S. State Department's Office of the Geographer and Global Issues
Because the Durand Line divides the Pashtun and Baloch people, it continues to be a source of tension between the governments of Pakistan and Afghanistan.[52] In August 2007, Pakistani politician and the leader of Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam, Fazal-ur-Rehman, urged Afghanistan to recognise the Durand Line.[53] Press statements from 2005 to 2007 by former Pakistani President Musharraf calling for the building of a fence on the Durand Line have been met with resistance from numerous Pashtun political parties in Afghanistan.[54][55][56] Pashtun politicians in Afghanistan strenuously object to even the existence of the Durand Line border.[57] In 2006 Afghan President Hamid Karzai warned that "Iran and Pakistan and others are not fooling anyone."
If they don't stop, the consequences will be ... that the region will suffer with us equally. In the past we have suffered alone; this time everybody will suffer with us.... Any effort to divide Afghanistan ethnically or weaken it will create the same thing in the neighboring countries. All the countries in the neighborhood have the same ethnic groups that we have, so they should know that it is a different ball game this time.[11]
— Hamid Karzai, February 17, 2006
Aimal Faizi, spokesman for the Afghan President, stated in October 2012 that the Durand Line is "an issue of historical importance for Afghanistan. The Afghan people, not the government, can take a final decision on it."[10]
Recent border skirmishes
In July 2003, Pakistani and Afghan forces clashed over border posts. The Afghan government claimed that the Pakistani military established bases up to 600 meters inside Afghanistan in the Yaqubi area near bordering
The border area between Afghanistan and Pakistan has long been one of the most dangerous places in the world, due largely to very little government control. It is legal and common in the region to carry guns, and assault rifles and explosives are common.[63] Many forms of illegal activities take place, such as smuggling of weapons, narcotics, lumber, copper, gemstones, marble, vehicles, and electronic products, as well as ordinary consumer goods.[52][64][65][66][67] Kidnappings and murders are frequent.[8] Militants frequently cross the border from both sides to conduct attacks.[68] In June 2011 more than 500 Taliban militants entered Upper Dir area from Afghanistan and killed more than 30 Pakistani security forces. Police said the attackers targeted a checkpost, destroyed two schools and several houses, while killing a number of civilians.[69]
The governments of Pakistan and Afghanistan are both trying to extend the rule of law into the border areas. At the same time, the United States is reviewing the Reconstruction Opportunity Zones (ROZ)
Much of the northern and central Durand line is quite mountainous, where crossing the border is often only practical in the numerous passes through the mountains. Border crossing is very common, especially among Pashtuns who cross to meet relatives or to work. The movement of people across the border has largely been unchecked or uncontrolled,
Throughout June and into July 2011, Pakistan Chitral Scouts and local defence militias suffered deadly cross-border raids. In response the Pakistani military shelled some Afghan villages in Afghanistan's Nuristan, Kunar, Nangarhar, and Khost provinces resulting in a number of Afghan civilians being killed.[72] Afghanistan's Interior Ministry claimed that nearly 800 rockets were fired from Pakistan, hitting civilian targets inside Afghanistan.[73] The Afghan statement claimed that attacks by Pakistan resulted in the deaths of 42 Afghan civilians, including 30 men and 12 women and girls, wounded 55 others and destroyed 120 homes. Although Pakistan claimed it was an accident and just routine anti-Taliban operations, some analysts believe that it could have been a show of strength by Islamabad. For example, a senior official at the Council on Foreign Relations explained that because the shelling was of such a large scale, it was more likely a warning from Pakistan than an accident.[74]
I'm speculating, but natural possibilities include a signal to Karzai and to (the United States) that we can't push Pakistan too hard.[74]
The United States and other NATO states often ignored this sensitive issue, likely because of potential effects on their war strategy in Afghanistan. Their involvement could have strained relations and jeopardized their own national interests in the area.[11] This came after the November 2011 NATO bombing in which 24 Pakistani soldiers were killed.[75] In response to that incident, Pakistan decided to cut off all NATO supply lines as well as boost border security by installing anti-aircraft guns and radars to monitor air activity.[76] Regarding the Durand Line, some rival maps are said to display discrepancies of as much as five kilometres.[77]
Trench being built alongside the border
In June 2016, Pakistan announced that it had completed 1,100 km of trenches along the Pakistan-Afghanistan border (Durand Line) in Balochistan to check movement of terrorists and smugglers across border into Pakistan from Afghanistan.[78] Plans to expand this trench/ berm/ fence work were announced in March 2017.[79] The plans also included building 338 checkpoints and forts along the border by 2019.[80]
2017 border closure and reopening
On 16 February, Pakistan closed the border crossings at
On 5 May, following an attack on Pakistani census team by Afghan forces and the resulting exchange of fire between the two sides, the border was closed again.[88]
Pakistan's decision to close the border was to force Afghanistan to take action against militant groups who were using Afghanistan's soil to carry out cross-border attacks against Pakistan.[89] An Afghan diplomat at the World Trade Organization (WTO) claimed that Afghanistan suffered a loss of 90 million U.S. dollars as a result of closure of border by Pakistan.[90] On 27 May 2017, Pakistan reopened the border after a request from Afghan authorities, marking the end of the border closure that lasted 22 days.[91]
Border barrier
Pakistan is constructing a
As of 21 January 2022 the interior minister of Pakistan stated that only 20 km of fencing remains and it will be completed soon .[96]
See also
- Af-Pak
- Afghanistan–Pakistan border skirmishes
- Afghanistan–Pakistan Confederation plan
- Afghanistan–Pakistan relations
- Khyber Pass Economic Corridor
- Noshaq
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Further reading
- Dogra, R. (2019) Durand's Curse: A Line Across the Pathan Heart, Rupa: New Delhi. ISBN 978-8129148643
- "Special Issue: The Durand Line". Internationales Asienforum. 44 (1–2). May 2013.
External links
- Text of the Durand Line Agreement, 12 November 1893 Archived 16 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine
- A detailed study paper by the European Foundation for South Asian Studies
- 1934 Afghanistan & Britain exchange of treaty notes, borders in the neighbourhood of Arnawai and Dokalim
- The Durand Line Agreement (1893): Its Pros and Cons
- "The Durand Line: History and Problems of the Afghan-Pakistan Border" Bijan Omrani, published in Asian Affairs, vol. 40, Issue 2, 2009.
- "Rethinking the Durand Line: The Legality of the Afghan-Pakistan Border", published in the RUSI Journal, Oct 2009, Vol. 154, No. 5
- No Man's Land – Where the imperialists' Great Game once unfolded, tribal allegiances have made for a "soft border" between Afghanistan and Pakistan – and a safe haven for smugglers, militants and terrorists
- Culture, Politics Hinder U.S. Effort to Bolster Pakistani Border, The Washington Post 30 March 2008
- "Border Complicates War in Afghanistan", The Washington Post, 4 April 2008