Fatimid dynasty

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Fatimid Dynasty
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For the state ruled by the dynasty, see Fatimid Caliphate.
Fatimid dynasty
الفاطميون
Parent familyHusaynids
CountryFatimid Caliphate
EtymologyFatima
Founded909
FounderAbd Allah al-Mahdi Billah
Final rulerAl-Adid li-Din Allah
Historic seatRaqqada (909–921)
al-Mahdiya (921–948)
al-Mansuriya (948–973)
Cairo (973–1171)
TitlesImam and Caliph
Dissolution1171
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The Fatimid dynasty (

Fatima and Ali, and adhering to Isma'ili Shi'ism, they held the Isma'ili imamate, and were regarded as the rightful leaders of the Muslim community. The line of Nizari Isma'ili imams, represented today by the Aga Khans, claims descent from a branch of the Fatimids. The Alavi Bohras, predominantly based in Vadodara
, also claim descent from the Fatimids.

The Fatimid dynasty emerged as the leaders of the clandestine early Isma'ili missionary movement (

Abdallah, proclaimed himself to be the expected imam, causing a rift in the Isma'ili da'wa as the Qarmatians, who did not recognize his imamate, split off. In the meantime, Isma'ili agents had managed to conquer large parts of Yemen and Ifriqiya, as well as launch uprisings in Syria and Iraq. Fleeing Abbasid persecution to Ifriqiya, Abdallah proclaimed himself openly and established the Fatimid Caliphate in 909. From there, the Fatimid imam–caliphs extended their rule over most of the Maghreb as well as Sicily, before conquering Egypt in 969. Founding Cairo as their new capital, for the next two centuries, the Fatimids would be based in Egypt and identified with the country. At their height, the Fatimids claimed control or suzerainty over much of North Africa, Sicily, Egypt, the Levant, the Hejaz, Yemen, and Multan
.

The Fatimids' claimed pedigree of descent from Fatima and Ali was central to their legitimacy as the legitimate imams in an unbroken, divinely ordained line from Ali onwards. Their initial obscurity, and the publication of conflicting and incorrect genealogies by the first Fatimid caliph,

Twelver Shi'a
alike, who considered them impostors and usurpers. As a result, many sources into the 20th century referred to the Fatimids by the derogatory name Ubaydids.

Fatimid expansion into the Levant, and the ideological challenge that the

Tayyibis, breaking off from the Fatimid allegiance, and tarnished the prestige and authority of the dynasty. The last of the Fatimid imam–caliphs were powerless child rulers that were pawns in the hands of their viziers. The last of these viziers, Saladin, deposed the dynasty in 1171, after the death of Caliph al-Adid
. The remaining members of the dynasty and their offspring were placed under house arrest in Cairo until their deaths; the last members of the dynasty died in the mid-13th century.

Origin

Background: early Shi'ism

Since the death of

Fatima.[1] A line of imams emerged from the offspring of Husayn, who did not openly lay claim to the caliphate, but were considered by their followers as the true representatives of God on earth.[1] This doctrine was founded on the designation (nass) of Ali by Muhammad at Ghadir Khumm, and later pro-Fatimid scholars held that an unbroken chain of designated imams would follow until the end of the world; indeed, these scholars argued that the imams' existence was an inevitable necessity.[2]

The sixth of these imams,

Muhammad, son of Isma'il and grandson of al-Sadiq. From Muhammad's father, Isma'il, the sect receives its name of 'Isma'ili'.[1][5][6] Neither Isma'il's nor Muhammad's lives are well known, and after Muhammad's reported death during the reign of Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809), the history of the early Isma'ili movement becomes obscure.[7]

Fatimid genealogies and controversies

Official Fatimid doctrine claimed an uninterrupted line of succession between the first Fatimid caliph,

Abd Allah al-Mahdi Billah (r. 909–934), and Ali and Fatima, via Muhammad ibn Isma'il.[8] This descent was both accepted and challenged already in the Middle Ages, and remains a topic of debate among scholars today.[9] As the historian of Shi'a Islam Heinz Halm comments, "The alleged descent of the dynasty from Ali ibn Abi Talib and Muhammad's daughter Fatima has been called into question by contemporaries from the very beginning and cannot be proven",[10] while Michael Brett, an expert on the Fatimids, asserts that "a factual answer to the question of their identity is impossible".[11]

The main problem arises with the succession linking al-Mahdi with Ja'far al-Sadiq. According to Isma'ili doctrine, the imams that followed Muhammad ibn Isma'il were in concealment (satr), but early Isma'ili sources do not mention them, and even later, official Isma'ili genealogies diverge on the number, names and identities of these 'hidden imams' (al-a'imma al-masturin), a problem complicated by the Isma'ili claims that the hidden imams assumed various aliases for safety.[12][13] Thus the pro-Isma'ili Prince Peter Hagop Mamour, in his 1934 apologetic work Polemics on the Origin of the Fatimi Caliphs, lists no fewer than fifty variations of the line of the four hidden imams between Isma'il ibn Ja'far and al-Mahdi, claiming that the various names represent pseudonyms.[14] Early Isma'ili sources tend to be silent on the matter, from a mixture of both religious imperative—since God has decreed his imams to be hidden, they should remain so—and apparent ignorance.[15] Al-Mahdi himself, in a letter sent to the Isma'ili community in Yemen, even claimed not to be descended from Isma'il ibn Ja'far, but from his older brother Abdallah al-Aftah, who is generally held to not have had any descendants at all. Notably, later official Fatimid genealogies rejected this version.[16][17][18] In addition, it appears that the first known ancestor of the Fatimid line, Abdallah al-Akbar, the great-grandfather of the first Fatimid caliph, initially claimed descent not from Ali at all, but from his brother Aqil ibn Abi Talib, and was accepted as such by the Aqilids of Basra.[19] According to Brett, the line of descent claimed by the Fatimid between Ja'far al-Sadiq and al-Mahdi reflects "historical beliefs rather than historical figures, for which there is little or no independent confirmation",[11] as even Isma'il ibn Ja'far is an obscure figure, let alone his supposed hidden successors.[20]

While pro-Fatimid sources emphasize their

Orientalists.[25]

Early Isma'ili sources ignore the existence of Maymun al-Qaddah, but later, Fatimid-era sources were forced to confront their opponents' claims about his person, and tried to reconcile the conflicting genealogies accordingly.

Tayyibi Isma'ili authors also used the figures of Maymun al-Qaddah and his son Abdallah to argue for the legality of there being a substitute or representative of the imam, whenever the latter was underage.[27] A further controversy that emerged already in medieval times is whether the second Fatimid caliph, Muhammad al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah, was the son of al-Mahdi, or whether the latter was merely usurping the position of a still-hidden imam; that would mean that al-Qa'im was the first true Fatimid imam-caliph.[16][26]

Modern authors have tried to reconcile the genealogies. In Origins of Ismāʿı̄lism, the Arabist

al-Mu'izz, in 965. This would make the claim of al-Mahdi's descent from an 'Abdallah ibn Maymun' actually correct, and lead hostile sources to confuse him with the earlier Shi'a figure.[30] Another suggestion, by Abbas Hamdani and F. de Blois, is that the officially published genealogies represent a compromise between two different lines of descent from Ja'far al-Sadiq, one from Isma'il and another (per al-Mahdi's letter to the Yemenis) from Abdallah al-Aftah.[31][28] Other scholars, such as Halm, remain skeptical, while Omert Schrier and Michael Brett dismiss the Fatimid claims of Alid descent entirely as a pious fiction.[32]

The Fatimids and the early Isma'ili da'wa

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Both the Twelvers and the Seveners held that their final imams were not dead, but had simply gone into concealment, and that they would soon return as a messiah, the mahdi ('the Rightly Guided One') or qa'im ('He Who Arises'), to usher in the end times.[1][33] The mahdi would rapidly overthrow the usurping Abbasids and destroy their capital Baghdad, restore the unity of the Muslims, conquer Constantinople, ensure the final triumph of Islam and establish a reign of peace and justice.[34] The Isma'ilis in particular believed that the mahdi would reveal the true, 'inner' (batin) meaning of religion, which was until then reserved for a few select initiates. The mahdi would abolish the 'outer' (zahir) forms and strictures of Islam, since henceforth the true religion, the religion of Adam, would be manifested without the need for symbols and other mediating devices.[35]

While the mahdi Muhammad ibn Isma'il remained hidden, however, he would need to be represented by agents, who would gather the faithful, spread the word (

al-Husayn (d. 881/2), and thence to al-Husayn's son, Abdallah or Sa'id, the future Caliph al-Mahdi, who was born in 873/4.[41] Isma'ili texts suggest that Abu'l-Shalaghlagh was the guardian and tutor of al-Mahdi, but also that he tried to usurp the succession for his own sons but failed, as the latter all died prematurely.[41]

During the late ninth century,

da'i al-du'at) and 'gateway' (bab) to the hidden leader.[47]

Qarmatian schism and flight to the Maghreb

In about 899, Abdallah ibn al-Husayn assumed the leadership of the da'wa. Soon, he began making alterations to the doctrine, which worried Hamdan Qarmat. Abdan went to Salamiyah to investigate the matter, and learned that Abdallah claimed that the expected mahdi was not Muhammad ibn Isma'il, as commonly propagated, but Abdallah himself, and that Abdallah's ancestors, far from being simply the hujjas of the imams, were actually the imams themselves. In a letter to the Yemeni community, Abdallah claimed that 'Muhammad ibn Isma'il' was actually a cover name assumed by each incumbent imam, and denied any particular role of Muhammad ibn Isma'il as the expected mahdi who was to usher in the end times.[48] These doctrinal innovations caused a major rift in the movement, as Hamdan denounced the leadership in Salamiyah, gathered the Iraqi da'is and ordered them to cease the missionary effort. Shortly after this Hamdan "disappeared" from his headquarters, and Abdan was assassinated by Zakarawayh ibn Mihrawayh, who had remained loyal to Salamiyah.[49]

The schism left the early Isma'ili da'wa divided into two factions: those who accepted Abdallah's claims, and continued to follow him, and became the Isma'ilis proper, and those who rejected them and continued to believe in the return of Muhammad ibn Isma'il as mahdi, who became known as the

Tulunid Egypt in early 904. As the Abbasids recovered control of Egypt in the next year, the small party fled again. While his companions expected to head to Yemen, where the Isma'ili da'wa had enjoyed great success, Abdallah turned westward, and established himself at the oasis town of Sijilmasa, in what is now southwestern Morocco, in August 905.[21][52]

Ruling an empire

Establishment of the Fatimid Caliphate

In the meantime, in Ifriqiya, the da'i Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i had managed to convert the

regnal title of al-imam al-mahdi bi'llah, 'the imam rightly guided by God'.[56]

The first crisis of the new regime occurred quickly. Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i and his brother demanded proof of Abdallah being the mahdi, or resented the limitations on their authority placed by the new ruler. Al-Mahdi Billah was able to eliminate them in 911, but this led to a Kutama revolt, led by a child mahdi as a figurehead. The uprising was defeated, and the Fatimid control over the Kutama consolidated.

Kharijism, and thus opposed to the Isma'ili regime of the Fatimids.[21][58]

Imperial expansion

Given the semi-divine status they claimed as the rightful imams of Islam, the Fatimids' ambitions were not limited to Ifriqiya. The Fatimid caliphs aimed to overthrow not only the rival Muslim monarchs—the Abbasids of Baghdad and the

Cordoba—but also the Byzantine Empire, claiming a divine right to universal sovereignty.[59]

Fatimid power quickly expanded across the sea to

Kalbid dynasty, governed Sicily on the Fatimids' behalf.[60]

The Fatimids also expanded west to the rest of the Maghreb, where Fez and Sijilmasa were captured in 920–921, although these conquests were difficult to hold, and brought the Fatimids into conflict with the Umayyads of Cordoba.[63][64] In an attempt to supplant the Abbasids, al-Mahdi's son and heir, al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah, led campaigns eastward to capture Egypt in 914 and 919. Both endeavours failed, leaving only the Cyrenaica in Fatimid hands.[10][64]

Revolt of Abu Yazid

The fortified entrance to al-Mahdiyya today

Between 916 and 921, al-Mahdi built a new residence, the fortified palace city of Mahdiyya, on a rocky promontory on the Ifriqiyan coast.[10] When Al-Mahdi died in 934, he was succeeded by his son, al-Qa'im (r. 934–946), who continued his father's policies.[65] Another attempted invasion of Egypt in 935 was defeated by the country's new strongman ruler, Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikhshid.[66]

The most notable event of al-Qa'im's reign was the revolt of the Zenata Berbers under the Khariji preacher

al-Mansur bi-Nasr Allah ('The Victor with the Help of God').[10][69] Al-Mansur moved the Fatimid court to a new palace city, al-Mansuriyya near Kairouan, but died soon after, and was succeeded by his son, al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah (r. 953–975).[10]

Conquest of Egypt and move of the capital to Cairo

Al-Mu'izz was an excellent planner and organizer, and the state he inherited had regained internal stability, after the turmoils of Abu Yazid's revolt.[70] His early reign saw successes against the Byzantines, where the last remaining Byzantine strongholds were extinguished with the Fall of Rometta in 965,[71] as well as the reconquest of the western Maghreb by the Fatimid general Jawhar in 958–960, temporarily expelling Umayyad influence from the region and extending Fatimid rule to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean.[72]

After these successes, al-Mu'izz once again turned to the abandoned project of the conquest of Egypt. Meticulous military and political preparations were undertaken, and the agents of the Isma'ili da'wa engaged to promote the Fatimid cause in Egypt and suborn officials of the weakened

Ikhshidid regime.[60][73] As a result, when the Fatimid army under Jawhar arrived in Egypt in summer 969, it faced little organized resistance. Jawhar entered the Egyptian capital, Fustat, in July 969, and claimed the country for his master.[74] Immediately he began establishing a new capital city near Fustat, which came to be known as al-Qahira al-Mu'izziyya ('the Victorious One of al-Mu'izz'), modern Cairo.[10]

Jawhar governed Egypt for the next four years as viceroy of al-Mu'izz, restoring the country's finances.[75] It was not until August 972 that al-Mu'izz left Ifriqiya, appointing the Berber Buluggin ibn Ziri as his viceroy there. In June 973, the Fatimid court arrived in Egypt and al-Mu'izz took up residence in Cairo.[76]

Expansion into Syria

In the meantime, immediately after the conquest if Egypt Jawhar had tried to extend Fatimid rule into Syria. The first Fatimid invasion failed largely due to the opposition of the Qarmatians of Bahrayn, who did not hesitate to align themselves with the Abbasid caliph and denounce al-Mu'izz in public. The Qarmatian leader al-Hasan al-A'sam led two invasions of Egypt in 971 and again, despite al-Mu'izz's efforts to win him over, in 974. Both invasions were beaten back at the gates of Cairo, forcing the Qarmatians to retreat to Bahrayn, and opening the path for a renewed Fatimid attempt to conquer Syria.[77] At the same time, around 970/71, the two holy cities of Mecca and Medina, recognized Fatimid suzerainty, an important symbolic victory for the Fatimids.[78]

In 978, Caliph

Buyids, to recognize their suzerainty, failed; the Buyids rejected the Fatimids' claims of Alid descent.[80] Al-Aziz's reign saw also a transformation in the structure and nature of the Fatimid state: the Kutama, who had been the main pillar of the early Fatimid regime, were now complemented by Turkish military slaves (ghilman) as well as Black African slave soldiers, while under the guidance of Ya'qub ibn Killis, the Fatimid administration became organized and regularized.[10]

Reign of al-Hakim

Al-Aziz died in 996, while preparing a major campaign against the Byzantines and Hamdanids. He was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son,

Uqaylids of Mosul briefly acknowledged Fatimid suzerainty in 1010, and in 1015, Aleppo did the same, with Fatimid troops entering the city and imposing direct control in 1017.[78] Relations with the Zirids, who quickly had begun distancing themselves from Cairo's authority, became more strained under al-Hakim due to disputes over Cyrenaica and Tripoli,[79] and in 1016/7, the new Zirid emir, al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, launched a pogrom against the remaining Isma'ilis in Ifriqiya.[10]

From 1015 on, the Fatimid Caliphate, and the Isma'ili community, were confronted by a rise in sectarianism: a series of preachers who propagated extremist versions of Isma'ilism appeared, preaching the imminence of the end times, the divinity of al-Hakim, and the abolition of the

antinomian views, but al-Hakim seems to have tolerated, if not encouraged them. Although al-Hakim never officially espoused their views, the teachings of men such as al-Darzi and Hamza ibn Ali resulted in the birth of the Druze faith.[10] At the same time, al-Hakim made curious innovations in the succession, by splitting up his office in two: one to succeed the caliphate, i.e. the secular office, and one to succeed as imam, i.e. as leader of the Isma'ili community. Furthermore, he sidelined his own son and appointed two cousins to the posts, thereby arousing the hostility of the Fatimid elites. As a result of a conspiracy among the latter, al-Hakim was murdered during one of his night rides outside Cairo, and his corpse disposed of, never to be found.[10]

The dynasty in power

Members of the dynasty were carefully kept out of public affairs; even princes and princesses of the blood did not have a special position at court, let alone being entrusted with the governance of provinces or the command of armies as in other medieval states, which might result in an independent power base that could threaten the orderly father-to-son succession of the imamate and caliphate.

umm walad upon the birth of a son.[82] This led to differences in rank: a detailed list of court precedence from 1122, during the reign of al-Amir, the caliph's single full brother, Ja'far, is accorded first place in the hierarchy, while their half-brothers from other women are listed much lower, after the caliph's own concubines.[81]

Nevertheless, the members of the dynasty enjoyed immense riches, founded on the possession of properties in the capital, Cairo, and its environs, as well as commerce.

caravanserais and baths, and 8,000 other buildings that paid a monthly rent to the caliph's private purse (diwan al-khass) or the private treasury (khizana al-khass).[84] Fatimid princesses are likewise recorded as being extremely wealthy, in part from estates allocated to them, and in part due to their own commercial and entrepreneurial activities. Thus at their death in 1050/51, two daughters of Caliph al-Mu'izz left estates of about 1.7 million gold dinars each, while Sitt al-Mulk is known to have employed an extensive staff of able administrators of both sexes for her far-flung economic interests.[85]

Family trees

See also: List of Fatimid caliphs

Descent from Ali as accepted by the later Isma'ilis

Genealogy according to al-Mahdi's letter to the Yemeni community

Descent according to a letter sent to the Isma'ili community in Yemen by al-Mahdi bi'llah, which was reproduced by Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman[86][87]
Fatimah bint Muhammad
al-Husayn ibn Ali
Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin
Zayd ibn AliMuhammad al-Baqir
Ja'far al-Sadiq
Musa al-Kadhim
Abdallah al-Aftah
Muhammad ibn Isma'il
Twelver imamsAbdallah al-Akbar
(in concealment)
Ahmad

(in concealment)
Abu Ali Muhammad
(Abu'l-Shalaghlagh)
al-Husayn

(in concealment)
Daughter
Abdallah
al-Mahdi bi'llah
Muhammad
al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah
   denotes imams, regnal names in bold

Genealogy as proposed by Bernard Lewis

Mustawda'/Qaddahite (left) and Mustakarr/Alid (right) imams, as proposed by Bernard Lewis[88]
Maymun al-Qaddah
Abdallah
Muhammad
Husayn
Ahmad
Sa'id
Abdallah al-Mahdi Billah
Muhammad ibn Isma'il
Ahmad
Ali
Muhammad
al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah

Dynastic family tree

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Brett 2017, p. 18.
  2. ^ Brett 2001, p. 31.
  3. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 88–89.
  4. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 89.
  5. ^ Halm 1991, pp. 27–28.
  6. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 89–90.
  7. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 90–96.
  8. ^ a b Canard 1965, p. 850.
  9. ^ cf. Andani 2016, pp. 199–200 for a summary.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Halm 2014.
  11. ^ a b Brett 2001, p. 29.
  12. ^ Canard 1965, pp. 850–851.
  13. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 99–100, 104.
  14. ^ Brett 2001, p. 34.
  15. ^ Brett 2001, p. 35.
  16. ^ a b c d Canard 1965, p. 851.
  17. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 101.
  18. ^ Halm 1991, pp. 146–147.
  19. ^ Halm 1991, pp. 19–20.
  20. ^ Brett 2001, p. 30.
  21. ^ a b c d Canard 1965, p. 852.
  22. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 8, 101–103.
  23. ^ Andani 2016, pp. 199–200.
  24. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 8–9, 24–25.
  25. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 101–103.
  26. ^ a b c Daftary 2007, p. 105.
  27. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 105–106.
  28. ^ a b Daftary 2007, p. 107.
  29. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 103.
  30. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 104–105.
  31. ^ Brett 2001, p. 36.
  32. ^ Andani 2016, p. 200.
  33. ^ Halm 1991, p. 28.
  34. ^ Halm 1991, pp. 28–29.
  35. ^ Halm 1991, p. 29.
  36. ^ Halm 1991, pp. 29–30.
  37. ^ Halm 1991, pp. 16–18.
  38. ^ Halm 1991, pp. 17–20.
  39. ^ Halm 1991, pp. 22–24.
  40. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 99–100.
  41. ^ a b Daftary 2007, p. 100.
  42. ^ Brett 2017, p. 17.
  43. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 108.
  44. ^ Halm 1991, p. 47.
  45. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 108–110.
  46. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 116.
  47. ^ Halm 1991, p. 61.
  48. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 116–119.
  49. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 117.
  50. ^ a b Daftary 2007, p. 120.
  51. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 122–124.
  52. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 123, 125.
  53. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 126–127.
  54. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 127.
  55. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 127–128.
  56. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 128.
  57. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 141.
  58. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 141–142.
  59. ^ Canard 1942–1947.
  60. ^ a b c d Canard 1965, p. 853.
  61. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 143–144.
  62. ^ Lev 1995, pp. 191–192.
  63. ^ Canard 1965, pp. 852–853.
  64. ^ a b Daftary 2007, p. 142.
  65. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 145.
  66. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 143.
  67. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 146.
  68. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 146–147.
  69. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 147.
  70. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 156.
  71. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 144–145.
  72. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 156–157.
  73. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 158.
  74. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 159.
  75. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 161.
  76. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 162.
  77. ^ Daftary 2007, p. 162–164.
  78. ^ a b c d e f Canard 1965, p. 854.
  79. ^ a b c Canard 1965, p. 855.
  80. ^ Canard 1965, pp. 855–856.
  81. ^ a b Halm 2014, p. 149.
  82. ^ Halm 2014, pp. 149–150.
  83. ^ Lev 1991, pp. 65–67.
  84. ^ Lev 1991, p. 65.
  85. ^ Lev 1991, pp. 68–69.
  86. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 101, 118–119.
  87. ^ Halm 1991, pp. 145–147.
  88. ^ Lewis 1940, pp. 71–73.

Sources

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