Human uses of living things
Human uses of living things, including animals[1] plants,[2] fungi, and microbes, take many forms, both practical, such as the production of food and clothing, and symbolic, as in art, mythology, and religion. The skills and practices involved are transmitted by human culture through social learning.[3] Social sciences including archaeology, anthropology and ethnography are starting to take a multispecies view of human interactions with nature, in which living things are not just resources to be exploited, practically or symbolically, but are involved as participants.
Many species of animal are kept as
Animals such as horses and deer are among the earliest subjects of art, being found in the Upper Paleolithic cave paintings such as at Lascaux.
Living things further play a wide variety of symbolic roles in literature, film, mythology, and religion. Sometimes a major
Context
Culture
Three types of use
Scholars of human culture have traditionally divided uses of living things into two categories: practical use for food[6] and other resources; and symbolic use such as in art[7] and religion.[8] More recently, scholars have added a third type of interaction, where living things, whether animals, plants, fungi or microbes function as participants. This makes the relationships bidirectional, explicitly implying various forms of symbiosis in a complex ecology.[9][10][11][12] These three types are described in turn.
Practical uses
For food and materials
The human population exploits and depends on many animal and plant species for
Plants provide the greater part of food for humans, and for their
Plants grown as
For work and transport
Working domestic animals including cattle, horses, yaks, camels, and elephants have been used for work and transport from the origins of agriculture, their numbers declining with the arrival of mechanised transport and agricultural machinery. In 2004 they still provided some 80% of the power for the mainly small farms in the third world, and some 20% of the world's transport, again mainly in rural areas. In mountainous regions unsuitable for wheeled vehicles, pack animals continue to transport goods.[31]
In science
Biology studies the whole range of living things.
Animals such as the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, the zebrafish, the chicken and the house mouse, serve a major role in science as experimental models,[32] both in fundamental biological research, such as in genetics,[33] and in the development of new medicines, which must be tested exhaustively to demonstrate their safety.[34][35] Millions of mammals, especially mice and rats, are used in experiments each year.[36] Knockout mice are used to help discover the functions of genes.[37][38]
Basic biological research has often been done with plants. In
For medicines and drugs
Vaccines have been made using animals since their discovery by Edward Jenner in the 18th century. He noted that inoculation with live cowpox afforded protection against the more dangerous smallpox. In the 19th century, Louis Pasteur developed an attenuated (weakened) vaccine for rabies. In the 20th century, vaccines for the viral diseases mumps and polio were developed using animal cells grown in vitro.[43]
An increasing variety of
Since
Also since the earliest times, people have exploited some of the many
For pleasure
Both animals and plants are used to provide pleasure, through a range of activities including keeping pets, hunting, fishing, and gardening.
A wide variety of animals are kept as
Many animals are hunted for sport.[59] The aquatic animals most often hunted for sport are fish, including many species from large marine predators such as sharks and tuna, to freshwater fish such as trout and carp.[60][61] Birds such as partridges, pheasants and ducks, and mammals such as deer and wild boar, are among the terrestrial game animals most often hunted.[62][63][64]
Thousands of plant species are cultivated for aesthetic purposes as well as to provide shade, modify temperatures, reduce wind, abate noise, provide privacy, and prevent soil erosion. Plants are the basis of a multibillion-dollar per year tourism industry, which includes travel to
Symbolic uses
In art
Both animals and plants are significant in art, whether as background or as main subjects.
Animals, often mammals but including fish and insects among other groups, have been the
Plants appear in art, either to illustrate their botanical appearance,
-
One of Vincent van Gogh's Flowering Orchards paintings: Souvenir de Mauve, 1888
In literature and film
Animals, plants, and microbes feature in literature and film.
Animals as varied as bees, beetles,
A genre of films has been based on oversized insects, including the pioneering 1954 Them!, featuring giant ants mutated by radiation, and the 1957 The Deadly Mantis.[73][74][75] Birds have occasionally featured in film, as in Alfred Hitchcock's 1963 The Birds, loosely based on Daphne du Maurier's story of the same name, which tells the tale of sudden attacks on people by violent flocks of birds.[76] Ken Loach's admired[77] 1969 Kes, based on Barry Hines's 1968 novel A Kestrel for a Knave, tells a story of a boy coming of age by training a kestrel.[77] Parasitoids have inspired science fiction authors and screenwriters to create disgusting and terrifying parasitic alien species that kill their human hosts,[78] such as in Ridley Scott's 1979 film Alien.[79][80]Plants too, both real and invented, play many roles in
The
In mythology and religion
Animals including many insects[100] and mammals[101] feature in mythology and religion; indeed, animals and plants appear in what has been suggested to be the world's first religion in the Paleolithic era.[102] Among the insects, in both Japan and Europe, as far back as ancient Greece and Rome, a
Plants including
As participants
Social sciences including
Creatures previously appearing on the margins of anthropology—as part of the landscape, as food for humans, as symbols—have been pressed into the foreground in recent ethnographies. Animals, plants, fungi, and microbes once confined in anthropological accounts to the realm of zoe or 'bare life'—that which is killable—have started to appear alongside humans in the realm of bios, with legibly biographical and political lives.[10]
Archaeology, too, has traditionally centred ecological interactions on the human side, rather than, in Suzanne E. Pilaar Birch's words,[12]
emphasizing the uniqueness of our species rather than viewing [ecological] novelty as a collective shift shared amongst multiple species and their habitats.[12]
Birch includes animals, plants, fungi, and microbes among critical interactions with humans:[12]
plants too are incredibly important determinants: for mobile hunter-gatherers, they might dictate a seasonal move; for sedentary agriculturalists, the reliability of your crop yields means the difference between survival and extinction.[12]
Fungi and microbes may also be given short shrift in archaeology because they are more difficult to study ... perhaps only ... their physical traces ... Yet they are huge determining factors that cannot be overlooked. So too we might include proteins and DNA in our summary of what might be defined as multispecies archaeology.[12]
Whereas historically, Birch states, humans saw themselves as exceptional, such as in the medieval great chain of being, an integrated multispecies approach would assemble expertise "in diverse areas, including archaeology, human-animal studies, biology, ecology, evolutionary theory, and philosophy".[12]
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