Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Indian sculpture
)

Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent
Buddha, 1st–2nd century CE, Gandhara
Art forms of India
Indian art
Religions
Periods
Techniques
Locations
See also

Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent, partly because of the climate of the Indian subcontinent makes the long-term survival of organic materials difficult, essentially consists of sculpture of stone, metal or terracotta. It is clear there was a great deal of painting, and sculpture in wood and ivory, during these periods, but there are only a few survivals. The main Indian religions had all, after hesitant starts, developed the use of religious sculpture by around the start of the Common Era, and the use of stone was becoming increasingly widespread.

The first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the

Asoka from 270 to 232 BCE, and the Pillars of Ashoka he erected around India, carrying his edicts and topped by famous sculptures of animals, mostly lions, of which six survive.[3] Large amounts of figurative sculpture, mostly in relief, survive from Early Buddhist pilgrimage stupas, above all Sanchi; these probably developed out of a tradition using wood that also embraced Hinduism.[4]

During the 2nd to 1st century BCE in far northern India, in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara from what is now southern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, sculptures became more explicit, representing episodes of the Buddha's life and teachings.

The pink sandstone Hindu,

Pallava dynasty.[9]

Bronze age sculpture

The Pashupati seal, showing a seated figure, surrounded by animals

The first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the

Indus Valley civilization (3300–1700 BCE). These include the famous small bronze Dancing Girl. However such figures in bronze and stone are rare and greatly outnumbered by pottery figurines and stone seals, often of animals or deities very finely depicted and crafted.[10]

Pre-Mauryan art

Mathura Museum
.

Some very early depictions of deities seem to appear in the art of the

Indus Valley civilisation (3300 BCE - 1700 BCE), but the following millennium, coinciding with the Vedic period, is devoid of such remains.[11] It has been suggested that the early Vedic religion focused exclusively on the worship of purely "elementary forces of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices", which did not lend themselves easily to anthropomorphological representations.[12]

Terracotta figurine, Mathura, 4th century BCE

Various artefacts may belong to the

Black and red ware culture (1450-1200 BCE) or the Painted Grey Ware culture (1200-600 BCE), with finds in a wide area.[13]

Most of the early finds following this period correspond to what is called the "second period of urbanization" in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, after a gap about a thousand years following the collapse of the

Indus Valley civilization.[13] The anthropomorphic depiction of various deities apparently started in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, possibly as a consequence of the influx of foreign stimuli initiated with the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley, and the rise of alternative local faiths challenging Vedism, such as Buddhism and Jainism and local popular cults.[11] Some rudimentary terracotta artifacts may date to this period, just before the Mauryan era.[14]

Art of the Mauryan period (322-185 BCE)

National Emblem of India
, the most famous example of Mauryan art.
Main article: Mauryan art

The surviving art of the

Mauryan Empire which ruled, at least in theory, over most of the Indian subcontinent between 322 and 185 BCE is mostly sculpture. There was an imperial court-sponsored art patronized by the emperors, especially Ashoka
, and then a "popular" style produced by all others.

The most significant remains of monumental Mauryan art include the remains of the royal palace and the city of

Gaya, the non-edict bearing and edict bearing pillars, the animal sculptures crowning the pillars with animal and botanical reliefs decorating the abaci of the capitals and the front half of the representation of an elephant carved out in the round from a live rock at Dhauli.[15]

This period marked the appearance of Indian stone sculpture; much previous sculpture was probably in wood and has not survived. The elaborately carved animal capitals surviving on from some

National Emblem of India. Coomaraswamy distinguishes between court art and a more popular art during the Mauryan period. Court art is represented by the pillars and their capitals,[16] and surviving popular art by some stone pieces, and many smaller works in terracotta
.

The highly polished surface of court sculpture is often called Mauryan polish. However this seems not to be entirely reliable as a diagnostic tool for a Mauryan date, as some works from considerably later periods also have it. The Didarganj Yakshi, now most often thought to be from the 2nd century CE, is an example.

Art of the Shunga period (180-80 BCE)

Mathura Museum
, GMM 87.145

Terracotta arts executed during pre-Mauryan and Mauryan periods are further refined during Shunga periods and Chandraketugarh emerge as an important center for the terracotta arts of Shunga period. Mathura which has its basis in the pre-Mauryan period also emerges as an important center for Jain, Hindu and Buddhist art.

  • Bharhut stupa, Shunga horseman
    Bharhut stupa, Shunga horseman
  • Shunga Yakshi
    Shunga Yakshi
  • Chandraketugarh figurine
    Chandraketugarh figurine
  • Male figure, Chandraketugarh, India, 2nd-1st century BCE
    Male figure, Chandraketugarh, India, 2nd-1st century BCE
  • Bharhut Yavana(Greek) Warrior
    Bharhut Yavana(Greek) Warrior

Satavahana art

The

Buddhist monks; some queens may have been Buddhist. The most significant remains of their sculptural patronage are the Sanchi and Amaravati Stupas,[18]
along with a number of rock-cut complexes.

Sanchi stupas were constructed by

Emperor Ashoka
and later expanded by Shungas and Satavahanas. Major work on decorating the site with Torana gateway and railing was done by the Satavahana Empire.

  • Sanchi gateway
    Sanchi gateway
  • Carved reliefs of Sanchi gateway
    Carved reliefs of Sanchi gateway
  • Satavahana relief regarding the city of Kusinagara in the war over the Buddha's relics, South Gate, Stupa no. 1, Sanchi
    Satavahana relief regarding the city of Kusinagara in the war over the Buddha's relics, South Gate, Stupa no. 1, Sanchi
  • Bimbisara with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rajagriha to visit the Buddha.
    Bimbisara with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rajagriha to visit the Buddha.
  • Foreigners making a dedication to the Great Stupa at Sanchi.
    Foreigners making a dedication to the Great Stupa at Sanchi.

Cave temples

Between the 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE under Satavahanas, several Buddhist caves propped up along the coastal areas of Maharashtra and these cave temples were decorated with Satavahana era sculptures and hence not only some of the earliest art depictions, but evidence of ancient Indian architecture.

  • Kanheri caves Buddha statue
    Kanheri caves
    Buddha statue
  • Kanheri caves statue
    Kanheri caves statue

Amaravati art

Main article: Amaravati Stupa

The Amaravati school of Buddhist art was one of the three major Buddhist sculpture centres along with Mathura and Gandhara and flourished under Satavahanas, many limestone sculptures and tablets which once were plastered Buddhist stupas provide a fascinating insight into major early Buddhist school of arts.

  • Amaravati Marbles, fragments of Buddhist stupa
    Amaravati Marbles, fragments of Buddhist stupa
  • Head of a lion, from Gateway pillar at the Amaravati Stupa
    Head of a lion, from Gateway pillar at the Amaravati Stupa
  • Scroll supported by Indian Yaksha, Amaravati, 2nd–3rd century CE
    Scroll supported by Indian
    Amaravati
    , 2nd–3rd century CE
  • Mara's assault on the Buddha, 2nd century CE, Amaravati
    Mara's assault on the Buddha, 2nd century CE, Amaravati

Early South India

Stone sculpture was much later to arrive in South India than the north, and the earliest period is only represented by the

Satavahana-related".[19] It is dated to the 3rd century BCE,[20] or 2nd/1st century BCE.[19]

Though the hardness of local granites, the relatively limited penetration of Buddhism and Jainism in the deep south, and a presumed persistent preference for wood have all been proposed as factors in the late development of stone architecture and sculpture in the south, "the mystery remains".[21] The form of the Gudimallam Lingam, for example, would be a natural one to evolve in wood, using a straight tree trunk very efficiently, but to say that it did so is pure speculation in our present state of knowledge. Wooden sculpture, and architecture, has remained common in Kerala, where stone is hard to come by, but this means survivals are very largely limited to the last few centuries.[22]

Kushana art

Main article: Kushan art
Seated Bodhisattva with attendants
("Year 4 of the Great King Kanishka")
Brahmi inscription:
𑁕
Maharajasya Kanishkasya Sam 4
"Year 4 of the Great King Kanishka"
[23][24][25]

Kushan art is highlighted by the appearance of extensive Buddhist arts in the form of Mathuras, Gandharan and Amaravathi schools of art.

Mathura art

Main article: Art of Mathura

Mathura art
flourished in the ancient city of Mathura and predominantly red sandstone has been used in making Buddhist and Jain sculptures.

  • Spotted red sandstone Bodhisattwa, Mathura Art, Kushan Empire, 2nd century CE
    Spotted red sandstone Bodhisattwa, Mathura Art, Kushan Empire, 2nd century CE
  • Yakshi Mathura
    Yakshi Mathura
  • Sibijataka and other Buddhist legends, Mathura art, 2nd century CE
    Sibijataka and other Buddhist legends, Mathura art, 2nd century CE
  • Bhutesvara Yakshis, reliefs from Mathura, 2nd century CE
    Bhutesvara Yakshis, reliefs from Mathura, 2nd century CE
  • Tirthankara Head, Kushan Period, Mathura
    Tirthankara Head, Kushan Period, Mathura
  • Bacchanalian scene. Mathura
    Bacchanalian
    scene. Mathura

Gandharan art

Main article: Greco-Buddhist art
Vajrapani-Heracles as the protector of the Buddha, 2nd century from Gandhara
Heracles depiction of Vajrapani as the protector of the Buddha, 2nd century CE, Gandhara, British Museum.[26]

Corinthian capital appearing.[27]

Although India had a long sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human form before this time, but only through some of his symbols.

Persian
artistic influence. Artistically, the Gandharan school of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes and sandals, acanthus leaf decorations, etc.

The origins of Greco-Buddhist art are to be found in the Hellenistic

Dunhuang Caves, and ultimately the sculpted figure in China, Korea, and Japan.[29]

Gupta art (319-510)

Vishnu sleeping, protected by Shesha, Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh

Jain tirthankara figures continued to expand, the latter often on a very large scale. The traditional main centre of sculpture was Mathura, which continued to flourish, with the art of Gandhara, the centre of Greco-Buddhist art just beyond the northern border of Gupta territory, continuing to exert influence. Other centres emerged during the period, especially at Sarnath
. Both Mathura and Sarnath exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.

It is customary to include under "Gupta art" works from areas in north and central India that were not actually under Gupta control, in particular art produced under the

Deccan c. 250–500.[31] Their region contained very important sites such as the Ajanta Caves and Elephanta Caves, both mostly created in this period, and the Ellora Caves which were probably begun then. Also, although the empire lost its western territories by about 500, the artistic style continued to be used across most of northern India until about 550,[32] and arguably around 650.[33] It was then followed by the "Post-Gupta" period, with (to a reducing extent over time) many similar characteristics; Harle ends this around 950.[34]
Three main schools of Gupta sculpture are often recognised, based in
Nalanda.[35] The distinctively different stones used for sculptures exported from the main centres described below aids identification greatly.[36]

Elephanta Caves, triple-bust (trimurti) of Shiva, 18 feet (5.5 m) tall, c. 550.

Both Buddhist and Hindu sculpture concentrate on large, often near life-size, figures of the major deities, respectively

yakshi, which had been very prominent in preceding periods, are now smaller and less frequently represented, and the crowded scenes illustrating Jataka tales of the Buddha's previous lives are rare.[37] When scenes include one of the major figures and other less important ones, there is a great difference in scale, with the major figures many times larger. This is also the case in representations of incidents from the Buddha's life, which earlier had showed all the figures on the same scale.[38]

The lingam was the central murti in most temples. Some new figures appear, including personifications of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, not yet worshipped, but placed on either side of entrances; these were "the two great rivers encompassing the Gupta heartland".[39] The main bodhisattva appear prominently in sculpture for the first time,[40] as in the paintings at Ajanta. Buddhist, Hindu and Jain sculpture all show the same style,[41] and there is a "growing likeness of form" between figures from the different religions, which continued after the Gupta period.[32]

The Indian stylistic tradition of representing the body as a series of "smooth, very simplified planes" is continued, though poses, especially in the many standing figures, are subtly tilted and varied, in contrast to the "columnar rigidity" of earlier figures.[42] The detail of facial parts, hair, headgear, jewellery and the haloes behind figures are carved very precisely, giving a pleasing contrast with the emphasis on broad swelling masses in the body.[43] Deities of all the religions are shown in a calm and majestic meditative style; "perhaps it is this all-pervading inwardness that accounts for the unequalled Gupta and post-Gupta ability to communicate higher spiritual states".[32]

Early Medieval (600-1192-1206) onwards

Kārttikeya
, 11th century

Pala and Sena empires

The

Sena Empire. During this time, the style of sculpture changed from "Post-Gupta" to a distinctive style that was widely influential in other areas and later centuries. Deity figures became more rigid in posture, very often standing with straight legs close together, and figures were often heavily loaded with jewellery; they very often have multiple arms, a convention allowing them to hold many attributes and display mudras. The typical form for temple images is a slab with a main figure, rather over half life-size, in very high relief, surrounded by smaller attendant figures, who might have freer tribhanga poses. Critics have found the style tending towards over-elaboration. The quality of the carving is generally very high, with crisp, precise detail. In east India, facial features tend to become sharp.[44]

Though the Pala monarchs are recorded as patronizing religious establishments in a general sense, their patronage of any specific work of art cannot be documented by the surviving evidence, which is mostly inscriptions.[45] However, there are much larger numbers of images that are dated, as compared to other Indian regions and periods, helping greatly the reconstruction of stylistic development.[46]

Much larger numbers of smaller bronze groups of similar composition have survived than from previous periods. Probably the numbers produced were increasing. These were mostly made for domestic shrines of the well-off, and from monasteries. Gradually, Hindu figures come to outnumber Buddhist ones, reflecting the terminal decline of Indian Buddhism, even in east India, its last stronghold.[47]

Temples of Khajuraho

Further information: Khajuraho Group of Monuments
Intricately carved sculptures on the exterior of one of the temples of Khajuraho.[48]

The

Chandela dynasty. They are considered one of the best examples of Indian art and architecture.[48]

The temples have a rich display of intricately carved sculptures. While they are famous for their erotic sculptures, sexual themes cover less than a tenth of the temple sculpture. The sculptures depict various aspects the everyday life, mythical stories as well as symbolic display of various secular and spiritual values important in Hindu tradition.[48]

Dynasties of South India

Shiva as Nataraja, Chola period.
Main article: Chola art and architecture

After the

Gudimallam lingam (see above), the earliest dynasty of southern India to leave stone sculpture on a large scale was the long-lasting Pallava dynasty which ruled much of south-east India between 275 and 897, although the major sculptural projects come from the later part of the period. A number of significant Hindu temples survive, with rich sculptural decoration. Initially these tend to be rock-cut, as are most of the Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (7th and 8th centuries), perhaps the best-known examples of Pallava art and architecture Many of these exploit natural outcrops of rock, which are carved away on all sides until a building is left. Others, like the Shore Temple, are constructed in the usual way, and others cut into a rock face like most other rock-cut architecture. The Descent of the Ganges at Mahabalipuram, is "the largest and most elaborate sculptural composition in India",[49]
a relief carved on a near-vertical rock face some 29 metres (86 feet) wide, featuring hundreds of figures, including a life-size elephant (late 7th century).

Other Pallava temples with sculpture surviving in good condition are the

Murugan) as a child.[52]

Gopuram of the Kapaleeshwarar Temple, Tamil Nadu, densely packed with rows of painted plaster figures, 1906.

The "imperial" Chola dynasty begins about 850, controlling much of the south, with a slow decline from about 1150. Large numbers of temples were constructed, which mostly suffered far less from Muslim destruction than those further north. These were heavily decorated with stone relief sculpture, both large narrative panels and single figures, mostly in niches on the outside. The Pallava style was broadly continued.

Chola bronzes, the largest mostly about half life-size, are some of the most iconic and famous sculptures of India, using a similar elegant but powerful style to the stone pieces. They were created using the lost wax technique. The sculptures were of Shiva in various avatars with his consort Parvati, and Vishnu with his consort Lakshmi, among other deities.[53] Even large bronzes had the advantage that they were light enough to be used in processions for festivals.

The most iconic among these is the bronze figure of Shiva as Nataraja, the lord of dance. In his upper right hand he holds the damaru, the drum of creation.[54] In his upper left hand he holds the agni, the flame of destruction. His lower right hand is lifted in the gesture of the abhaya mudra. His right foot stands upon the demon Apasmara, the embodiment of ignorance.[55]

The Vijayanagara Empire was the last major Hindu empire, constructing very large temples at Hampi, the capital, of which much remains in generally good condition, despite the Mughal army spending a year destroying the city after its fall.[56] Temples are often highly decorated, in a style that further elaborates the late Chola style, and was influential for later South Indian temples. Rows of horses rearing out from columns became a favourite and spectacular device. By the end of the period hugely expanded multi-storey gopurams had become the most prominent feature of templeas, as they have remained in the major temples of the south. The large numbers of figures on these were now mostly made from brightly painted stucco.

Late Medieval period or Islamic rule (1206-1757)

The period was dominated by Islamic rulers, who not only did not produce figurative sculpture themselves, but whose armies, especially in the initial conquests, destroyed vast amounts of existing religious sculpture, which considerably discouraged the production of new figures.

Nonetheless, religious sculpture continued, especially in the far south, where the larger temples continued to expand in a rather competitive fashion. The late medieval southern innovation of towering gopuram gateways continued, and these were covered with large sculptures, in recent centuries mainly in brightly painted stucco. Very large halls were constructed for the large numbers of visitors in temples, sometimes filled with spectacular sculpture, like the famous row of life-size rearing horses at the Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam from the 17th century.

British Colonial period (1757-1858-1947)

The Statue of Henry Hardinge, Governor-General of India

During this period, European styled statues were erected in city squares, as monuments to the British Empire's power. Statues of Queen Victoria, George V, and various Governor-Generals of India were erected. Such statues were removed from public places after independence, and placed within museums. However, some still stand at their original location, such as Statue of Queen Victoria, Bangalore.

Post-independence (1947 - present)

Modern Indian sculptors include D.P Roy Choudhury, Ramkinkar Baij, Pilloo Pochkhanawala, Mrinalini Mukherjee, Adi Davierwala, Sankho Chaudhuri and Chintamoni Kar.[57] The National Gallery of modern Art has a large collection of modern Indian sculpture.[57] Contemporary Indian sculptors include Sudarshan Shetty, Ranjini Shettar, Anita Dube and Rajeshree Goody.

Gallery

See also

Part of a series on the
Culture of India
Culture of India
Society
Arts and literature
Others
Symbols
Organizations
  • Sculptures of Bangladesh
  • List of rock-cut temples in India
  • List of the tallest statues in India

    • Notes

    1. ^ Blurton, 22
    2. ^ Harle, 17–20
    3. ^ Harle, 22–24
    4. ^ a b Harle, 26–38
    5. ^ Harle, 87; his Part 2 covers the period
    6. ^ Harle, 124
    7. ^ Harle, 301-310, 325-327
    8. ^ "Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2019-02-20.
    9. ^ Harle, 276–284
    10. ^ "South Asian arts - Visual arts of India and Sri Lanka (Ceylon)". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-02-20.
    11. ^
      JSTOR 29756891
      .
    12. JSTOR 29756891
      .
    13. ^
      ISBN 978-0-470-75196-1
      .
    14. JSTOR 3248779
      .
    15. ISBN 81-219-0887-6
      , p.348
    16. ISBN 0-19-564445-X
      , pp.267-70
    17. ^
      ISBN 9789004155374
      .
    18. ^ Harle, 28, 32-38
    19. ^ a b c Harle, 271
    20. ISBN 9780199593347
      .
    21. ^ Harle, 271-272, 272 quoted
    22. ^ Harle, 342-350; Blurton, 225
    23. ^ "Seated Buddha with Two Attendants". www.kimbellart.org. Kimbell Art Museum.
    24. ISBN 9789810567057
      .
    25. doi:10.3406/befeo.1988.1739
      .
    26. ISBN 978-0-691-21747-5
      .
    27. ^ Boardman, 370–378; Harle, 71–84
    28. ^ Dehejia, Vidya. "Buddhism and Buddhist Art". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2019-02-20.
    29. ^ Boardman, 370–378; Sickman, 85–90; Paine, 29–30
    30. ^ Rowland's chapter 15 is called "The Golden Age: The Gupta Period; Harle, 88
    31. ^ Harle, 118
    32. ^ a b c Harle, 89
    33. ^ Rowland, 215
    34. ^ Harle, 199
    35. ^ Mookerji, 1, 143
    36. ^ Harle, 89; Rowland, 216; Mookerji, 143
    37. ^ Harle, 87–88
    38. ^ Rowland, 234
    39. ^ Harle, 87–88, 88 quoted
    40. ^ Rowland, 235
    41. ^ Rowland, 232
    42. ^ Rowland, 233
    43. ^ Rowland, 230–233, 232 and 233 quoted
    44. ^ Harle, 212-216; Craven, 170, 172-176; Huntington, generally, and p. 29 on freer attendants.
    45. ^ Huntington, 31 note 27 (the situation is little different for Gupta monarchs).
    46. ^ Huntington, 37, and Chapter 3 generally
    47. ^ Harle, 212; Craven, 176
    48. ^ a b c "Khajuraho Group of Monuments". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 2019-02-14. Retrieved 2019-02-20.
    49. ^ Harle, 272
    50. ^ Michell, 434-437
    51. ^ Harle, 277-278
    52. ^ Harle, 276-277
    53. ^ "Great Living Chola Temples". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 2018-12-26. Retrieved 2019-02-21.
    54. OCLC 53987899.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link
      )
    55. ^ "Shiva as Lord of Dance (Nataraja)". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2019-02-20.
    56. ^ Rowland, 317
    57. ^ a b "Modern Sculptures". National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi. Retrieved 2019-02-14.

    References

    Wikimedia Commons has media related to Indian sculpture.

    Further reading
    Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sculpture_in_the_Indian_subcontinent&oldid=1219130690"