Iron ore
Iron ores[1] are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted. The ores are usually rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey, bright yellow, or deep purple to rusty red. The iron is usually found in the form of magnetite (Fe
3O
4, 72.4% Fe), hematite (Fe
2O
3, 69.9% Fe), goethite (FeO(OH), 62.9% Fe), limonite (FeO(OH)·n(H2O), 55% Fe), or siderite (FeCO3, 48.2% Fe).
Ores containing very high quantities of hematite or magnetite, typically greater than about 60% iron, are known as natural ore or
Sources
This section needs additional citations for verification. (July 2021) |
Metallic iron is virtually unknown on the surface of the
Prior to the industrial revolution, most iron was obtained from widely-available
Iron ore mining methods vary by the type of ore being mined. There are four main types of iron ore deposits worked currently, depending on the mineralogy and geology of the ore deposits. These are magnetite, titanomagnetite, massive hematite, and pisolitic ironstone deposits.
Banded iron formations
The mining involves moving tremendous amounts of ore and waste. The waste comes in two forms: non-ore bedrock in the mine (
, which is chemically inert. This material is stored in large, regulated water settling ponds.Magnetite ores
The key parameters for magnetite ore being economic are the crystallinity of the magnetite, the grade of the iron within the banded iron formation host rock, and the contaminant elements which exist within the magnetite concentrate. The size and strip ratio of most magnetite resources is irrelevant, as a banded iron formation can be hundreds of meters thick, extend hundreds of kilometers along strike, and can easily come to more than three billion or more tonnes of contained ore.
The typical grade of iron at which a magnetite-bearing banded iron formation becomes economic is roughly 25% iron, which can generally yield a 33% to 40% recovery of magnetite by weight, to produce a concentrate grading in excess of 64% iron by weight. The typical magnetite iron ore concentrate has less than 0.1%
Currently[when?], magnetite iron ore is mined in Minnesota and Michigan in the United States, eastern Canada, and northern Sweden.[7] Magnetite-bearing banded iron formation is currently[when?] mined extensively in Brazil, which exports significant quantities to Asia, and there is a nascent and large magnetite iron ore industry in Australia.
Direct-shipping (hematite) ores
Direct-shipping iron ore (DSO) deposits (typically composed of hematite) are currently exploited on all continents except Antarctica, with the largest intensity in South America, Australia, and Asia. Most large hematite iron ore deposits are sourced from altered banded iron formations and (rarely) igneous accumulations.
DSO deposits are typically rarer than the magnetite-bearing BIF or other rocks which form its main source, or protolith rock, but are considerably cheaper to mine and process as they require less
Magmatic magnetite ore deposits
Some magnetite
Other sources of magnetite iron ore include metamorphic accumulations of massive magnetite ore such as at
Another, minor, source of iron ores are magmatic accumulations in layered intrusions which contain a typically titanium-bearing magnetite, often with vanadium. These ores form a niche market, with specialty smelters used to recover the iron, titanium, and vanadium. These ores are beneficiated essentially similarly to banded iron formation ores, but usually are more easily upgraded via crushing and screening. The typical titanomagnetite concentrate grades 57% Fe, 12% Ti, and 0.5% V
2O
5.[citation needed]
Mine tailings
For every one ton of iron ore concentrate produced, approximately 2.5–3.0 tons of iron ore
The two main methods of recycling iron from iron ore tailings are magnetizing roasting and direct reduction. Magnetizing roasting uses temperatures between 700 and 900 °C (1,292 and 1,652 °F) for a time of under 1 hour to produce an iron concentrate (Fe3O4) to be used for iron smelting. For magnetizing roasting, it is important to have a reducing atmosphere to prevent oxidization and the formation of Fe2O3 because it is harder to separate as it is less magnetic.[11][15] Direct reduction uses hotter temperatures of over 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) and longer times of 2–5 hours. Direct reduction is used to produce sponge iron (Fe) to be used for steel-making. Direct reduction requires more energy, as the temperatures are higher and the time is longer and it requires more reducing agent than magnetizing roasting.[11][16][17]
Extraction
Lower-grade sources of iron ore generally require
Magnetite
The grain size of the magnetite and its degree of commingling with the silica groundmass determine the grind size to which the rock must be comminuted to enable efficient magnetic separation to provide a high-purity magnetite concentrate. This determines the energy inputs required to run a milling operation.
Mining of banded iron formations involves coarse crushing and screening, followed by rough crushing and fine grinding to comminute the ore to the point where the crystallized magnetite and quartz are fine enough that the quartz is left behind when the resultant powder is passed under a magnetic separator.
Generally, most magnetite banded iron formation deposits must be ground to between 32 and 45 μm (0.0013 and 0.0018 in) in order to produce a low-silica magnetite concentrate. Magnetite concentrate grades are generally in excess of 70% iron by weight and usually are low in phosphorus, aluminium, titanium, and silica and demand a premium price.
Hematite
Due to the high density of hematite relative to associated silicate gangue, hematite beneficiation usually involves a combination of beneficiation techniques. One method relies on passing the finely-crushed ore over a slurry containing magnetite or other agent such as ferrosilicon which increases its density. When the density of the slurry is properly calibrated, the hematite will sink and the silicate mineral fragments will float and can be removed.[18]
Production and consumption
Country | Production |
---|---|
Australia | 817,000,000 t (804,000,000 long tons; 901,000,000 short tons) |
Brazil | 397,000,000 t (391,000,000 long tons; 438,000,000 short tons) |
China | 375,000,000 t (369,000,000 long tons; 413,000,000 short tons)* |
India | 156,000,000 t (154,000,000 long tons; 172,000,000 short tons) |
Russia | 101,000,000 t (99,000,000 long tons; 111,000,000 short tons) |
South Africa | 73,000,000 t (72,000,000 long tons; 80,000,000 short tons) |
Ukraine | 67,000,000 t (66,000,000 long tons; 74,000,000 short tons) |
United States | 46,000,000 t (45,000,000 long tons; 51,000,000 short tons) |
Canada | 46,000,000 t (45,000,000 long tons; 51,000,000 short tons) |
Iran | 27,000,000 t (27,000,000 long tons; 30,000,000 short tons) |
Sweden | 25,000,000 t (25,000,000 long tons; 28,000,000 short tons) |
Kazakhstan | 21,000,000 t (21,000,000 long tons; 23,000,000 short tons) |
Other countries | 132,000,000 t (130,000,000 long tons; 146,000,000 short tons) |
Total world | 2,280,000,000 t (2.24×109 long tons; 2.51×109 short tons) |
Iron is the world's most commonly used metal—steel, of which iron ore is the key ingredient, represents almost 95% of all metal used per year.[3] It is used primarily in structures, ships, automobiles, and machinery.
Iron-rich rocks are common worldwide, but ore-grade commercial mining operations are dominated by the countries listed in the table aside. The major constraint to economics for iron ore deposits is not necessarily the grade or size of the deposits, because it is not particularly hard to geologically prove enough tonnage of the rocks exist. The main constraint is the position of the iron ore relative to market, the cost of rail infrastructure to get it to market, and the energy cost required to do so.
Mining iron ore is a high-volume, low-margin business, as the value of iron is significantly lower than base metals.[22] It is highly capital intensive, and requires significant investment in infrastructure such as rail in order to transport the ore from the mine to a freight ship.[22] For these reasons, iron ore production is concentrated in the hands of a few major players.
World production averages 2,000,000,000 t (2.0×109 long tons; 2.2×109 short tons) of raw ore annually. The world's largest producer of iron ore is the Brazilian mining corporation
The seaborne trade in iron ore—that is, iron ore to be shipped to other countries—was 849,000,000 t (836,000,000 long tons; 936,000,000 short tons) in 2004.[22] Australia and Brazil dominate the seaborne trade, with 72% of the market.[22] BHP, Rio and Vale control 66% of this market between them.[22]
In Australia, iron ore is won from three main sources: pisolite "channel iron deposit" ore derived by mechanical erosion of primary banded-iron formations and accumulated in alluvial channels such as at Pannawonica, Western Australia; and the dominant metasomatically-altered banded iron formation-related ores such as at Newman, the Chichester Range, the Hamersley Range and Koolyanobbing, Western Australia. Other types of ore are coming to the fore recently,[when?] such as oxidised ferruginous hardcaps, for instance laterite iron ore deposits near Lake Argyle in Western Australia.
The total recoverable reserves of iron ore in India are about 9,602,000,000 t (9.450×109 long tons; 1.0584×1010 short tons) of hematite and 3,408,000,000 t (3.354×109 long tons; 3.757×109 short tons) of magnetite.[23] Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Odisha, Goa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu are the principal Indian producers of iron ore. World consumption of iron ore grows 10% per year [citation needed] on average with the main consumers being China, Japan, Korea, the United States, and the European Union.
China is currently the largest consumer of iron ore, which translates to be the world's largest steel producing country. It is also the largest importer, buying 52% of the seaborne trade in iron ore in 2004.[22] China is followed by Japan and Korea, which consume a significant amount of raw iron ore and metallurgical coal. In 2006, China produced 588,000,000 t (579,000,000 long tons; 648,000,000 short tons) of iron ore, with an annual growth of 38%.
Iron ore market
Over the last 40 years, iron ore prices have been decided in closed-door negotiations between the small handful of miners and steelmakers which dominate both spot and contract markets. Traditionally, the first deal reached between these two groups sets a benchmark to be followed by the rest of the industry.[3]
In recent years[when?], however, this benchmark system has begun to break down, with participants along both demand and supply chains calling for a shift to short-term pricing. Given that most other commodities already have a mature market-based pricing system, it is natural for iron ore to follow suit. To answer increasing market demands for more transparent pricing, a number of financial exchanges and clearing houses around the world have offered iron ore swaps clearing. The CME group, SGX (Singapore Exchange), London Clearing House (LCH.Clearnet), NOS Group, and ICEX (Indian Commodities Exchange) all offer cleared swaps based on The Steel Index's (TSI) iron ore transaction data. The CME also offers a Platts-based swap, in addition to their TSI swap clearing. The ICE (Intercontinental Exchange) offers a Platts-based swap clearing service also. The swaps market has grown quickly, with liquidity clustering around TSI's pricing.[26] By April 2011, over US$5.5 billion worth of iron ore swaps have been cleared basis TSI prices. By August 2012, in excess of one million tonnes of swaps trading per day was taking place regularly, basis TSI.
A relatively new development has also been the introduction of iron ore options, in addition to swaps. The CME group has been the venue most used for clearing of options written against TSI, with open interest at over 12,000 lots in August 2012.
Singapore Mercantile Exchange (SMX) has launched the world's first global iron ore futures contract, based on the Metal Bulletin Iron Ore Index (MBIOI) which uses daily price data from a broad spectrum of industry participants and independent Chinese steel consultancy and data provider Shanghai Steelhome's widespread contact base of steel producers and iron ore traders across China.[27] The futures contract has seen monthly volumes over 1,500,000 t (1,500,000 long tons; 1,700,000 short tons) after eight months of trading.[28]
This move follows a switch to index-based quarterly pricing by the world's three largest iron ore miners—
Abundance by country
Available world iron ore resources
Iron is the most abundant element on earth but not in the crust.[30] The extent of the accessible iron ore reserves is not known, though Lester Brown of the Worldwatch Institute suggested in 2006 that iron ore could run out within 64 years (that is, by 2070), based on 2% growth in demand per year.[31]
Australia
Brazil
This section's factual accuracy is disputed. (November 2019) |
Brazil is the second-largest producer of iron ore (after Australia). In 2015, Brazil exported 397,000,000 t (391,000,000 long tons; 438,000,000 short tons) tons of usable iron ore.[35] In December 2017 Brazil exported 346,497 t (341,025 long tons; 381,948 short tons) of iron ore, and from December 2007 to May 2018 it exported a monthly average of 139,299 t (137,099 long tons; 153,551 short tons).[36]
China
India
According to the U.S. Geological Survey's 2021 Report on iron ore,[37] India is estimated to produce 59,000,000 t (58,000,000 long tons; 65,000,000 short tons) of iron ore in 2020, placing it as the seventh-largest global center of iron ore production, behind Australia, Brazil, China, Russia, South Africa, and Ukraine.
India's iron ore production in 2023 was 285,000,000 metric tonnes and was the fourth largest producer in the world.[38]
Russia
South Africa
Ukraine
According to the U.S. Geological Survey's 2021 Report on iron ore,[37] Ukraine is estimated to have produced 62,000,000 t (61,000,000 long tons; 68,000,000 short tons) of iron ore in 2020, placing it as the seventh largest global center of iron ore production, behind Australia, Brazil, China, India, Russia, and South Africa. Producers of iron ore in Ukraine include Ferrexpo, Metinvest, and ArcelorMittal Kryvyi Rih.
United States
In 2014, mines in the United States produced 57,500,000 t (56,600,000 long tons; 63,400,000 short tons) of iron ore with an estimated value of $5.1 billion.[35] Iron mining in the United States is estimated to have accounted for 2% of the world's iron ore output. In the United States there are twelve iron ore mines, with nine being open pit mines and three being reclamation operations. There were also ten pelletizing plants, nine concentration plants, two direct-reduced iron (DRI) plants, and one iron nugget plant that were operating in 2014.[35] In the United States the majority of iron ore mining is in the iron ranges around Lake Superior. These iron ranges occur in Minnesota and Michigan, which combined accounted for 93% of the usable iron ore produced in the United States in 2014. Seven of the nine operational open pit mines in the United States are located in Minnesota as well as two of the three tailings reclamation operations. The other two active open pit mines were located in Michigan. In 2016, one of the two mines shut down.[35] There have also been iron ore mines in Utah and Alabama; however, the last iron ore mine in Utah shut down in 2014[35] and the last iron ore mine in Alabama shut down in 1975.[39]
Canada
In 2017, Canadian iron ore mines produced 49,000,000 t (48,000,000 long tons; 54,000,000 short tons) of iron ore in concentrate pellets and 13.6 million tons of crude steel. Of the 13,600,000 t (13,400,000 long tons; 15,000,000 short tons) of steel 7,000,000 t (6,900,000 long tons; 7,700,000 short tons) was exported, and 43,100,000 t (42,400,000 long tons; 47,500,000 short tons) of iron ore was exported at a value of $4.6 billion. Of the iron ore exported, 38.5% of the volume was iron ore pellets with a value of $2.3 billion, and 61.5% was iron ore concentrates with a value of $2.3 billion.
Smelting
Iron ores consist of
Carbon monoxide is the primary ingredient of chemically stripping oxygen from iron. Thus, the iron and carbon smelting must be kept at in oxygen-deficient (reducing) state to promote the burning of carbon to produce CO and not CO
2.
- Air blast and charcoal (coke): 2 C + O2 → 2 CO
- Carbon monoxide (CO) is the principal reduction agent.
- Stage One: 3 Fe2O3 + CO → 2 Fe3O4 + CO2
- Stage Two: Fe3O4 + CO → 3 FeO + CO2
- Stage Three: FeO + CO → Fe + CO2
- Limestone calcining: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
- Lime acting as flux: CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3
Trace elements
The inclusion of even small amounts of some elements can have profound effects on the behavioral characteristics of a batch of iron or the operation of a smelter. These effects can be both good and bad, some catastrophically bad. Some chemicals are deliberately added, such as flux, which makes a blast furnace more efficient. Others are added because they make the iron more fluid, harder, or give it some other desirable quality. The choice of ore, fuel, and flux determines how the slag behaves and the operational characteristics of the iron produced. Ideally, iron ore contains only iron and oxygen. In reality, this is rarely the case. Typically, iron ore contains a host of elements which are often unwanted in modern steel.
Silicon
Silica (SiO
2) is almost always present in iron ore. Most of it is slagged off during the smelting process. At temperatures above 1,300 °C (2,370 °F), some will be reduced and form an alloy with the iron. The hotter the furnace, the more silicon will be present in the iron. It is not uncommon to find up to 1.5% Si in European cast iron from the 16th to 18th centuries.
The major effect of silicon is to promote the formation of grey iron. Grey iron is less brittle and easier to finish than white iron. It is preferred for casting purposes for this reason. British metallurgist Thomas Turner reported that silicon also reduces shrinkage and the formation of blowholes, lowering the number of bad castings. However, too much silicon present in the iron leads to increased brittleness and moderate hardness.[42]
Phosphorus
Phosphorus (P) has four major effects on iron: increased hardness and strength, lower solidus, increased fluidity, and cold shortness. Depending on the use intended for the iron, these effects are either good or bad. Bog ore often has a high phosphorus content.[43]
The strength and hardness of iron increases with the concentration of phosphorus. 0.05% phosphorus in wrought iron makes it as hard as medium-carbon steel. High-phosphorus iron can also be hardened by cold hammering. The hardening effect is true for any concentration of phosphorus. The more phosphorus, the harder the iron becomes and the more it can be hardened by hammering. Modern steel makers can increase hardness by as much as 30%, without sacrificing shock resistance by maintaining phosphorus levels between 0.07 and 0.12%. It also increases the depth of hardening due to quenching, but at the same time also decreases the solubility of carbon in iron at high temperatures. This would decrease its usefulness in making blister steel (cementation), where the speed and amount of carbon absorption is the overriding consideration.
The addition of phosphorus has a downside. At concentrations higher than 0.2%, iron becomes increasingly cold short, or brittle at low temperatures. Cold short is especially important for bar iron. Although bar iron is usually worked hot, its uses[
Careful control of phosphorus can be of great benefit in casting operations. Phosphorus depresses the liquidus, allowing the iron to remain molten for longer and increasing fluidity. The addition of 1% can double the distance molten iron will flow.[44] The maximum effect, about 500 °C (932 °F), is achieved at a concentration of 10.2%.[45] For foundry work Turner[46] felt the ideal iron had 0.2–0.55% phosphorus. The resulting iron filled molds with fewer voids and also shrank less. In the 19th century some producers of decorative cast iron used iron with up to 5% phosphorus. The extreme fluidity allowed them to make very complex and delicate castings, but they could not be weight-bearing, as they had no strength.[47]
There are two remedies[according to whom?] for high-phosphorus iron. The oldest, easiest, and cheapest, is avoidance. If the iron that the ore produced was cold short, one would search for a new source of iron ore. The second method involves oxidizing the phosphorus during the fining process by adding iron oxide. This technique is usually associated with puddling in the 19th century, and may not have been understood earlier. For instance, Isaac Zane, owner of Marlboro Iron Works, did not appear to know about it in 1772. Given Zane's reputation[according to whom?] for keeping abreast of the latest developments, the technique was probably unknown to the ironmasters of Virginia and Pennsylvania.
Phosphorus is generally considered to be a deleterious contaminant because it makes steel brittle, even at concentrations of as little as 0.6%. When the Gilchrist–Thomas process allowed the removal of bulk amounts of the element from cast iron in the 1870s, it was a major development because most of the iron ores mined in continental Europe at the time were phosphorous. However, removing all the contaminant by fluxing or smelting is complicated, and so desirable iron ores must generally be low in phosphorus to begin with.
Aluminium
Small amounts of aluminium (Al) are present in many ores including iron ore, sand, and some limestones. The former can be removed by washing the ore prior to smelting. Until the introduction of brick-lined furnaces, the amount of aluminium contamination was small enough that it did not have an effect on either the iron or slag. However, when brick began to be used for hearths and the interior of blast furnaces, the amount of aluminium contamination increased dramatically. This was due to the erosion of the furnace lining by the liquid slag.
Aluminium is difficult to reduce. As a result, aluminium contamination of the iron is not a problem. However, it does increase the viscosity of the slag.[48][49] This will have a number of adverse effects on furnace operation. The thicker slag will slow the descent of the charge, prolonging the process. High aluminium will also make it more difficult to tap off the liquid slag. At the extreme, this could lead to a frozen furnace.
There are a number of solutions to a high-aluminium slag. The first is avoidance; do not use ore or a lime source with a high aluminium content. Increasing the ratio of lime flux will decrease the viscosity.[49]
Sulfur
Hot short iron is brittle when hot. This was a serious problem as most iron used during the 17th and 18th centuries was bar or wrought iron. Wrought iron is shaped by repeated blows with a hammer while hot. A piece of hot short iron will crack if worked with a hammer. When a piece of hot iron or steel cracks, the exposed surface immediately oxidizes. This layer of oxide prevents the mending of the crack by welding. Large cracks cause the iron or steel to break up. Smaller cracks can cause the object to fail during use. The degree of hot shortness is in direct proportion to the amount of sulfur present. Today, iron with over 0.03% sulfur is avoided.
Hot short iron can be worked, but it must be worked at low temperatures. Working at lower temperatures requires more physical effort from the smith or forgeman. The metal must be struck more often and harder to achieve the same result. A mildly sulfur-contaminated bar can be worked, but it requires a great deal more time and effort.
In cast iron, sulfur promotes the formation of white iron. As little as 0.5% can counteract the effects of slow cooling and a high silicon content.[51] White cast iron is more brittle, but also harder. It is generally avoided, because it is difficult to work, except in China where high-sulfur cast iron, some as high as 0.57%, made with coal and coke, was used to make bells and chimes.[52] According to Turner (1900, pp. 200), good foundry iron should have less than 0.15% sulfur. In the rest of the world, a high-sulfur cast iron can be used for making castings, but will make poor wrought iron.
There are a number of remedies for sulfur contamination. The first, and the one most used in historic and prehistoric operations, is avoidance. Coal was not used in Europe (unlike China) as a fuel for smelting because it contains sulfur and therefore causes hot short iron. If an ore resulted in hot short metal, ironmasters looked for another ore. When mineral coal was first used in European blast furnaces in 1709 (or perhaps earlier), it was coked. Only with the introduction of hot blast from 1829 was raw coal used.
Ore roasting
Sulfur can be removed from ores by
2), though a common iron mineral, has not been used as an ore for the production of iron metal. Natural weathering was also used in Sweden. The same process, at geological speed, results in the gossan limonite
The importance attached to low-sulfur iron is demonstrated by the consistently higher prices paid for the iron of Sweden, Russia, and Spain from the 16th to 18th centuries. Today sulfur is no longer a problem. The modern remedy is the addition of manganese, but the operator must know how much sulfur is in the iron because at least five times as much manganese must be added to neutralize it. Some historic irons display manganese levels, but most are well below the level needed to neutralize sulfur.[51]
Sulfide inclusion as
See also
Citations
- ^ Ramanaidou and Wells, 2014
- ^ "Iron Ore – Hematite, Magnetite & Taconite". Mineral Information Institute. Archived from the original on 17 April 2006. Retrieved 7 April 2006.
- ^ a b c Iron ore pricing emerges from stone age, Financial Times, October 26, 2009 Archived 2011-03-22 at the Wayback Machine
- .
- PMID 22845493.
- ^ Harry Klemic, Harold L. James, and G. Donald Eberlein, (1973) "Iron," in United States Mineral Resources, US Geological Survey, Professional Paper 820, p.298-299.
- PMID 30979878.
- S2CID 56961299.
- PMID 23571605.
- S2CID 129179725.
- ^ PMID 19782467.
- S2CID 93632258.
- .
- S2CID 129896853.
- S2CID 135733613.
- ISSN 1543-1851.
- ^ H.T. Shen, B. Zhou, et al. "Roasting-magnetic separation and direct reduction of a refractory oolitic-hematite ore" Min. Met. Eng., 28 (2008), pp. 30-43
- ^ Gaudin, A.M, Principles of Mineral Dressing, 1937
- ^ Graphic from The "Limits to Growth" and 'Finite' Mineral Resources, p. 5, Gavin M. Mudd
- ^ Tuck, Christopher. "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2017" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
- ^ Tuck, Christopher. "Global iron ore production data; Clarification of reporting from the USGS" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
- ^ a b c d e f Iron ore pricing war, Financial Times, October 14, 2009
- ISBN 9788131304044. Retrieved 12 November 2016 – via Google Books.
- ^ "Iron Ore - Monthly Price - Commodity Prices - Price Charts, Data, and News". IndexMundi. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
- ^ "Global price of Iron Ore | FRED | St. Louis Fed". Fred.stlouisfed.org. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
- ^ "The Steel Index > News & Events > Press Studio > 2 February 2011: Record volume of iron ore swaps cleared in January". Archived from the original on 22 May 2011. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
- ^ "SMX to list world's first index based iron ore futures". 29 September 2010. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
- ^ "ICE Futures Singapore - Futures Exchange". Retrieved 12 November 2016.
- ^ mbironoreindex
- PMID 16592930.
- ^ Brown, Lester (2006). Plan B 2.0. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 109.
- ^ "Iron Ore". Government of Western Australia - Department of Mines, Industry Regulation and Safety. Retrieved 6 August 2021.
- ^ Western Australian Mineral and Petroleum Statistics Digest 2021–22 (PDF) (Report). Government of Western Australia Department of Mines, Industry Regulation and Safety. 2022.
- ^ Pincock, Stephen (14 July 2010). "Iron Ore Country". ABC Science. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
- ^ a b c d e "USGS Minerals Information: Iron Ore". minerals.usgs.gov. Retrieved 16 February 2019.
- ^ "Brazil Iron Ore Exports: By Port". www.ceicdata.com. Retrieved 16 February 2019.
- ^ a b "USGS Report on Iron Ore, 2021" (PDF).
- ^ "List of countries by iron ore production", Wikipedia, 31 October 2023, retrieved 13 February 2024
- ^ Lewis S. Dean, Minerals in the economy of Alabama 2007Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine, Alabama Geological Survey, 2008
- ^ a b Canada, Natural Resources (23 January 2018). "Iron ore facts". www.nrcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 16 February 2019.
- ^ "Mining the Future 2030: A Plan for Growth in the Newfoundland and Labrador Mining Industry | McCarthy Tétrault". 19 November 2018.
- ^ Turner 1900, p. 287.
- ^ Gordon 1996, p. 57.
- ^ a b c Rostoker & Bronson 1990, p. 22.
- ^ Rostoker & Bronson 1990, p. 194.
- ^ Turner 1900.
- ^ Turner 1900, pp. 202–204.
- ^ Kato & Minowa 1969, p. 37.
- ^ a b Rosenqvist 1983, p. 311.
- ^ Gordon 1996, p. 7.
- ^ a b Rostoker & Bronson 1990, p. 21.
- ^ Rostoker, Bronson & Dvorak 1984, p. 760.
- ^ Turner 1900, pp. 77.
- ISSN 0010-938X.
- ISSN 0010-938X.
- ISSN 0010-9312.
General and cited references
- Gordon, Robert B. (1996). American Iron 1607–1900. The Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Kato, Makoto; Minowa, Susumu (1969). "Viscosity Measurement of Molten Slag- Properties of Slag at Elevated Temperature (Part 1)". Transactions of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan. 9. Tokyo: Nihon Tekko Kyokai: 31–38. .
- Ramanaidou, E. R. and Wells, M. A. (2014). 13.13 "Sedimentary Hosted Iron Ores". In: Holland, H. D. and Turekian, K. K. Eds., Treatise on Geochemistry (Second Edition). Oxford: Elsevier. 313–355. .
- Rosenqvist, Terkel (1983). Principles of Extractive Metallurgy. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
- Rostoker, William; Bronson, Bennet (1990). Pre-Industrial Iron: Its Technology and Ethnology. Archeomaterials Monograph No. 1.
- Rostoker, William; Bronson, Bennet; Dvorak, James (1984). "The Cast-Iron Bells of China". Technology and Culture. 25 (4). The Society for the History of Technology: 750–767. S2CID 112143315.
- Turner, Thomas (1900). The Metallurgy of Iron (2nd ed.). Charles Griffin & Company, Limited.
External links
- Historical documents
- History of the Iron Ore Trade on the Great Lakes (1910 Annual Report of the Lake Carriers' Association, made available online by the Michael Schwartz Library of Cleveland State University)
- James Stephen Jeans, Pioneers of the Cleveland Iron Trade (1875)
- Modern information
- Global price of Iron Ore data from the International Monetary Fund, made available via Federal Reserve Economic Data
- Iron Ore Statistics and Information from the U.S. Geological Survey's National Minerals Information Center
- World's Largest Iron Ore Producers, 2023, analysis from James F. King