Nicolas Malebranche
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Nicolas Malebranche
Biography
Early years
Malebranche was born in Paris in 1638, the youngest child of Nicolas Malebranche, secretary to King
In 1664, Malebranche first read Descartes' Treatise on Man, an account of the physiology of the human body. Malebranche's biographer, Father Yves André reported that Malebranche was influenced by Descartes' book because it allowed him to view the natural world without Aristotelian scholasticism. Malebranche spent the next decade studying Cartesianism.
Philosophical career
In 1674–75, Malebranche published the two volumes of his first and most extensive philosophical work. Entitled Concerning the Search after Truth. In which is treated the nature of the human mind and the use that must be made of it to avoid error in the sciences (French: De la recherche de la vérité. Où l’on traite de la Nature de l’Esprit de l’homme, et de l’usage qu’il en doit faire pour éviter l’erreur dans les Sciences), the book laid the foundation for Malebranche's philosophical reputation and ideas. It dealt with the causes of human error and on how to avoid such mistakes. Most importantly, in the third book, which discussed pure understanding, he defended a claim that the ideas through which we perceive objects exist in God.
Malebranche's first critic was the Abbé Simon Foucher, who attacked the Search even before its second volume had been published. Malebranche replied in a short preface added to that second volume, and then, in the 1678 third edition, he added 50% to the already considerable size of the book with a sequence of (eventually) seventeen Elucidations. These responded to further criticisms, but they also expanded on the original arguments, and developed them in new ways. In the Tenth Elucidation, for instance, Malebranche introduced his theory of "intelligible extension", a single, archetypal idea of extension into which the ideas of all particular kinds of bodies could be jointly resolved. In others, Malebranche placed a greater emphasis than he had previously done on his occasionalist account of causation, and particularly on his contention that God acted for the most part through "general volitions" and only rarely, as in the case of miracles, through "particular volitions".
Malebranche expanded on this last point in 1680 when he published Treatise on Nature and Grace. Here, he made it explicit that the generality of the laws whereby God regulated His behaviour extended not only to His activity in the natural world but also applied to His gift of
Timeline
- 1638 - Born in Paris to Nicolas Malebranche and Catherine de Lauzon.
- 1654 - Enters the Collège de la Marche and later the Sorbonne to study philosophy and theology.
- 1660 - Ordained as a member of the French Oratory.
- 1664 - First reads Descartes' Treatise on Man and spends the next ten years studying philosophy.
- 1674–75 - Publishes The Search After Truth.
- 1678 - Adds Elucidations to new edition of the Search.
- 1680 - Publishes Treatise of Nature and Grace.
- 1683 - Publishes Christian and Metaphysical Meditations. Arnauld publishes On True and False Ideas, the opening salvo in their dispute.
- 1684 - Publishes Treatise on Ethics.
- 1688 - Publishes Dialogues on Metaphysics and Religion (Dialogues on Metaphysics and Religion).
- 1690 - Treatise of Nature and Grace is placed on the Index of Prohibited Books.
- 1694 - Death of Arnauld.
- 1708 - Publishes Dialogue Between a Christian Philosopher and a Chinese Philosopher.
- 1709 - The Search After Truth is also placed on the Index.
- 1713–14 - Correspondence with Spinozism.
- 1715 - Malebranche dies.
Philosophy
Vision in God
Just as all human action (along with the action of any other creature) is entirely dependent on God, so too is all human cognition. Malebranche argued that human knowledge is dependent on divine understanding in a way analogous to that in which the motion of bodies is dependent on divine will. Like René Descartes, Malebranche held that humans attain knowledge through ideas – immaterial representations present to the mind. But whereas Descartes believed ideas are mental entities, Malebranche argued that all ideas exist only in God. These ideas, therefore, are uncreated and independent of finite minds. When we access them intellectually, we apprehend objective truth. Malebranche defined "truth" as a relation between ideas: since these ideas are in God, they are eternal and immutable, and consequently the only truths worthy of the name will themselves be eternal and immutable. Malebranche divided these relations between ideas into two categories: relations of magnitude and relations of quality or perfection. The former constitute "speculative" truths, such as those of geometry, while the latter constitute the "practical" truths of ethics. Ethical principles, for Malebranche, are therefore divine in their foundation, universal in their application, and to be discovered by intellectual contemplation, just as geometrical principles are.
With regard to this account of intellectual knowledge, Malebranche was more or less following
Malebranche was strongly influenced by Descartes but did not accept his philosophy uncritically. He is noted particularly for his view that we see all things in God and for his adoption of psycho-physical parallelism and 'occasionalism' to deal with the problem of interaction between mind and body. However, his attribution of epistemological and explanatory primacy to God leads to difficulties.
(1) If we see all things in God in the sense that He puts the ideas into our minds we can have no direct knowledge of the external world. We can appeal to clear and distinct ideas as a criterion for the veridicality of judgements about physical things, but it is God who is ultimately responsible for our ideas.
(2) If all things are under the direct control of God, subject to His will, what of human freedom? Malebranche's view that we have freedom to choose but only in relation to finite goods is not convincing, denying as it does the possibility of resistance of movement towards God as the universal good. (This may be a misrepresentation of Malebranche's view; see the first chapter of The Search for Truth, where he specifies that while we cannot but desire the good in general, we are free to apply that love to particulars, and can do so in a disordered fashion that leads to sin. His account is no different from St. Augustine's in this regard.)
(3) In so far as God is not to be identified with the archetypal eternal truths in his mind, Malebranche is not a pantheist. But, as in mediaeval philosophy, this gives rise to the problem of reconciling God's freedom with His supposed immutability.
Theodicy
Malebranche's theodicy is his solution to the problem of evil. Although he conceded that God had the power to create a more perfect world, free from all defects, such a world would have necessitated a greater complexity in divine ways. Thus, God produces the natural evils that follow from simple laws not because he wills those particular effects, but because he wills a world that best reflects his wisdom by achieving the best possible balance between the intrinsic perfection of the work and the simplicity and generality of its laws.
Malebranche's dualism
Whereas Malebranche followed
I am unable, when I turn to myself, to recognize any of my faculties or my capacities. The inner sensation which I have of myself informs me that I am, that I think, that I
This leads Theodore to declare that 'I am not my own light to myself'; the nature of our own minds is highly obscure. What is more, with regard to psycho-physical interaction, Malebranche argues that body could not act on mind, nor mind on body. The only active power (hence the only efficient cause of change in the world) is God. When I will that my arm should rise, my volition is the "occasion" or the "occasional cause" of the movement of my arm; the efficient cause of both my volition and the movement of my arm is God. Malebranche's doctrine, which could be found in contemporary commentaries on Aristotle, and which first appeared in certain Arab philosophers, is therefore called "occasionalism".[3]
Occasionalism
In general,
In particular, there will be laws governing what we would customarily call the "interaction" of body and mind, so that similar movements in the body will "occasion" similar ideas in the mind. That relation has some features of the causal relation (it satisfies, for example, universal conditionals of the form "Whenever C occurs, E occurs"). But in reality both the idea in the mind and the movement in the body are caused by God.
Scientific contributions
Although better known for his philosophical work, Malebranche made some notable contributions to
In addition, Malebranche wrote on the
Malebranche also developed an original theory related to preformationism, postulating that each embryo probably contained even smaller embryos ad infinitum, like an idealized Matryoshka doll. According to Malebranche, "an infinite series of plants and animals were contained within the seed or the egg, but only naturalists with sufficient skill and experience could detect their presence" (Magner 158–9).[4]
Legacy
Aside, perhaps, from John Norris (who, in any case, drew at least as much from Malebranche's own sources, primarily Saint Augustine, as he did from Malebranche himself), there are few if any philosophers who can be considered faithful followers of Malebranche in all matters. He was, however, held in widespread high regard within his own lifetime and for some time afterwards, and the influence of certain of his ideas can be discerned in the works of several important figures.
David Hume supported and drew upon Malebranche's negative arguments to show that no genuine causal connections could be conceived between distinct mundane entities. However, when it came to finding a positive replacement for such causal connections, he turned inwards to the workings of the human mind, instead of turning upwards to God. With regard to this second half of Malebranche's occasionalism, Hume wrote:
- We are got into fairy land, long ere we have reached the last steps of our theory. ...Our line is too short to fathom such immense abysses.[7]
Hume's
Locke withheld his "An Examination of P[ère] Malebranche's Opinion Of Seeing All Things In God" from publication, "because he looked upon it to be an opinion that would not spread but was like to die of itself, or at least to do no great harm."[9] Much as Locke predicted, Malebranche's reputation outside France (where he always enjoyed high esteem) did begin to diminish during the 18th century, and remained low thereafter. However, over the last three or four decades, Malebranche's work has drawn renewed and ever-increasing interest. Several of his works have been translated into English for the first time, as scholars have been reassessing his ideas. Many[who?] have begun to argue that the originality and unity of his philosophical system merits him a place alongside such figures as Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz.
Bibliography
- Works in English
- The Search after Truth and Elucidations, eds. Thomas M. Lennon and Paul J. Olscamp. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). First published, with Philosophical Commentary, by Ohio State University Press, 1980).
- Dialogues on Metaphysics and Religion, eds. Nicholas Jolley and David Scott. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). Supersedes 1923 translation by Morris Ginsberg.
- Treatise on Nature and Grace, tr. Patrick Riley. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992).
- Philosophical Selections, ed. Steven Nadler. (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1992). Contains selections (some in alternative translations) from above three works.
- Treatise on Ethics, tr. Craig Walton. (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1993).
- Dialogue between a Christian Philosopher and a Chinese Philosopher on the Existence and Nature of God, tr. Dominick A. Iorio. (University Press of America, 1980).
- Correspondence with Dortous de Mairan, in Malebranche's First and Last Critics, tr. Richard A. Watson and Marjorie Grene. (Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1995).
The Thomas Taylor translation of the Search (1694; second edition 1700) includes material not contained in the Lennon and Olscamp edition (which is based on the 1712 version of the text). It is bound with Malebranche's Defence against the Accusation of M. de la Ville, which has not been available in English at all since the seventeenth century. The Treatise of Nature and Grace is also included in the same volume. Rival translations of all three of these works were also published by Richard Sault in 1694–95. In addition, the Conversations chrétiennes were translated in 1695 as Christian Conferences... to which is added, Meditations on Humility and Repentance: this work has also been unavailable in English since the seventeenth century.
The standard edition of Malebranche's works in French is the Œuvres Complètes, ed. André Robinet, twenty volumes (Paris: J. Vrin, 1958–78).[10]
See also
- List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics
References
- ^ "How to pronounce Nicolas Malebranche (French/France)". YouTube. PronouceNames.com. April 24, 2014.
- Congregation of the Oratory of Saint Philip Neri.
- ^ ISBN 0-631-18627-1
- ^ Magner, Lois. A History of the Life Sciences. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc, 2002
- ^ See Bayle's Historical and Critical Dictionary, article on "Epicurus", note S.
- Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous, second dialogue.
- ^ An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, section 7, part 1.
- ^ Parerga and Paralipomena, Vol. I, "Sketch of a History of the Doctrine of the Ideal and the Real"
- ^ "Advertisement To The Reader" of Locke's Posthumous Works.
- ^ "Nicolas Malebranche • de.knowledgr.com". de.knowledgr.com.
Further reading
- Alquié, Ferdinand. Le cartésianisme de Malebranche (Paris: J. Vrin, 1974).
- Badiou, Alain. Malebranche (New York: Columbia University Press, 2019)
- Connell, Desmond. The Vision in God. Malebranche's Scholastic Sources (Louvain: Nauwelaerts, 1967).
- Fabiani, Paolo "The Philosophy of the Imagination in Vico and Malebranche". F.U.P. (Florence UP), Italian edition 2002, English edition 2009.
- Lewin, James. Die Lehre von den Ideen bei Malebranche (Halle: E. Karras, 1912).
- Gueroult, Martial. Malebranche (three volumes, Paris: Aubier, 1955–59).
- McCracken, Charles. Malebranche and British Philosophy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983).
- Nadler, Steven. Malebranche & Ideas (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).
- Nadler, Steven, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Malebranche (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
- Radner, Daisie. Malebranche: A Study of a Cartesian System (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1978).
- Robinet, André. Système et existence dans l'oeuvre de Malebranche (Paris: J. Vrin, 1965).
- Rodis-Lewis, Geneviève. Nicolas Malebranche (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1963).
- Schmaltz, Tad. Malebranche's Theory of the Soul (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).
External links
- Works related to Nicolas Malebranche at Wikisource
- Quotations related to Nicolas Malebranche at Wikiquote
- Works by or about Nicolas Malebranche at Internet Archive
- Nicolas Malebranche at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
- Schmaltz, Tad. "Nicolas Malebranche". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Nolan, Lawrence. "Malebranche's Theory of Ideas and Vision in God". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Malebranche: Religion article by Brandon Watson in Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Fabiani, Paolo "The Philosophy of the Imagination in Vico and Malebranche". F.U.P. (Florence UP), Italian edition 2002, English edition 2009.
- Malebranche's Dialogues on Metaphysics: A good introduction to his philosophy, lightly modified for easier reading.
- Dialogues On Metaphysics and On Religion translated by Morris Ginsberg (1923)
- Father Malebranche: his treatise concerning the Search after Truth : the whole work complete, to which is added the author's treatise of Nature and Grace translated by Thomas Taylor (1700)
- Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. .